{"id":245,"date":"2014-03-30T01:48:15","date_gmt":"2014-03-29T23:48:15","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/marx-21.net\/?page_id=245"},"modified":"2014-03-30T16:47:43","modified_gmt":"2014-03-30T13:47:43","slug":"21-yuzyilda-kuresel-sehirler-kuresel-isciler","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/marx-21.net\/?page_id=245","title":{"rendered":"21. Y\u00fczy\u0131lda K\u00fcresel \u015eehirler, K\u00fcresel \u0130\u015f\u00e7iler"},"content":{"rendered":"
Mike Haynes<\/em><\/strong><\/pre>\n
Bir i\u015f\u00e7i d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda ya\u015f\u0131yoruz. Son ku\u015fakta k\u00fcresel toplumsal de\u011fi\u015fim, tarih\u00adte ilk kez i\u015f\u00e7ilerin \u00e7o\u011funluk s\u0131n\u0131f haline geldi\u011fini g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. 1970-2010 aras\u0131n\u00adda, ileri \u00fclkelerde i\u015f\u00e7ilerin say\u0131s\u0131 300 k\u00fcsur milyondan 500 milyona \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015fken, yoksul \u00fclkelerde say\u0131lar\u0131 do\u011frudan bakmakla y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fc olduklar\u0131 d\u00e2hil 1,1 mil\u00adyardan 2,5-3 milyara y\u00fckselmi\u015fti. Tabii ki toplumsal ili\u015fkiler karma\u015f\u0131kt\u0131r ama bu basit olgu \u00f6nemlidir. Art\u0131k d\u00fcnya n\u00fcfusunun \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011fu k\u00f6yl\u00fc \u00fcretimiyle hatta daha ilkel tar\u0131m bi\u00e7imleriyle u\u011fra\u015fm\u0131yor. Ayr\u0131ca tarihte ilk kez bir kentler d\u00fcnya\u00ads\u0131nda ya\u015f\u0131yoruz. Son on y\u0131lda k\u00fcresel dengenin a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131 k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgelerin aleyhine belli \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclerde \u015fehirlere kaym\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Elbette \u015fehirdeki toplumsal ili\u015fkiler de karma\u00ad\u015f\u0131kt\u0131r ama tekrarlarsak, kasaba ve \u015fehrin merkezi rol\u00fcn\u00fc ortaya koyan bu temel ol\u00adgu \u00f6nemlidir. Bu makalenin amac\u0131, hem iddial\u0131 hem de s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 bir bi\u00e7imde bu iki noktaya odaklanmakt\u0131r. Makale, e\u011filimleri bir tek \u00fclke ya da b\u00f6lgeden \u00e7ok yer\u00adk\u00fcre perspektifiyle belirlemeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 anlam\u0131nda iddial\u0131d\u0131r. B\u00fcy\u00fck teorik id\u00addialar \u00f6ne s\u00fcrmekten \u00e7ok, daha derin bir analizin \u00fczerinde in\u015fa edilebilece\u011fi bir k\u0131s\u0131m veriler, belirtiler ve \u00f6nerileri bir araya getirmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131yla da s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n
2011 sonbahar\u0131nda 7 milyar\u0131 ge\u00e7ecek olan d\u00fcnya n\u00fcfusu – Monako ya da Andorra gibi k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck n\u00fcfus ve y\u00fcz\u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcmleri olan – mikro devletleri ve y\u00fcz\u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcm\u00fc a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan Rusya ya da n\u00fcfus a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan \u00c7in (1,3 milyar) ve Hindistan (1,2 milyar) gibi dev devletleri i\u00e7ine alan 200’den fazla devlete b\u00f6l\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. D\u00fcnyada olup bi\u00adten her \u015feyden de bu devletler sorumludur. Birle\u015fmi\u015f Milletler ve D\u00fcnya Banka\u00ads\u0131 gibi kurumlar\u0131n derledi\u011fi istatistikler, nicelik ve nitelik y\u00f6n\u00fcnden kendi i\u00e7lerinde farkl\u0131l\u0131k g\u00f6steren ulusal istatistiklere dayan\u0131r. Bu nedenle, k\u00fcresel verilerde e\u011fi\u00adlim -istatisti\u011fi tahmin ve varsay\u0131mlarla birle\u015ftiren- y\u00fcksek hata pay\u0131na sahip olmalar\u0131d\u0131r.1<\/sup> Ama biz megatrendlerle ilgilendi\u011fimizden, baz\u0131 hata paylar\u0131 +\/- y\u00fczde 10 gibi y\u00fcksek oranlara ula\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in marjinal farkl\u0131l\u0131klara a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 vurgu yap\u0131lmama\u00ads\u0131 ko\u015fuluyla, bu \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck bir sorun yaratmamal\u0131. Ama bu her t\u00fcrl\u00fc analizin e\u011fi\u00adlim olarak ham olmas\u0131 anlam\u0131na da gelir. En ileri \u00fclkeler ve b\u00f6lgeler i\u00e7in, i\u015f ve meslek anketleri gibi \u015feylere dayal\u0131 az \u00e7ok geli\u015fmi\u015f bir s\u0131n\u0131f analizi, ger\u00e7ekte an\u00adcak ulusal \u00e7apta yap\u0131labilir. K\u00fcresel analiz d\u00fczeyinde, n\u00fcfusun k\u0131rlara ve kentle\u00adre ya da ekonominin farkl\u0131 sekt\u00f6rlerine da\u011f\u0131l\u0131m\u0131 gibi daha temel g\u00f6stergelere bel ba\u011flamak zorunday\u0131z. Gene de ayd\u0131nlat\u0131c\u0131 bir \u015feyler b\u00fcy\u00fck s\u00fcre\u00e7ler hakk\u0131nda d\u00fc\u00ad\u015f\u00fcnmekle elde edilebilir.<\/p>\n
Bu ko\u015fullarda, \u00f6nce k\u00fcresel kentle\u015fme modelini kuraca\u011f\u0131z. Sonra da \u015fehir\u00adlerin nas\u0131l b\u00fcy\u00fcd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne g\u00f6z ataca\u011f\u0131z. Buradan -\u00f6zellikle geli\u015fmekte olan d\u00fcnya\u00adda- kent hayat\u0131n\u0131n do\u011fas\u0131 ve k\u00fcresel kapitalizmdeki s\u00fcre\u00e7lerle ili\u015fkisi konusuna ge\u00e7ebiliriz. Ard\u0131ndan, en sonunda i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmesinin k\u00fcresel modeli ko\u00adnusuna el atmadan \u00f6nce k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgeleri ve bu b\u00f6lgelerin k\u00fcresel ekonomik siste\u00adme ne kadar s\u0131k\u0131 ba\u011fland\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 k\u0131saca ele alabiliriz.<\/p>\n
K\u00fcresel Kentle\u015fme<\/h5>\n
Tablo 1, d\u00fcnya n\u00fcfusunun son iki y\u00fczy\u0131lda b\u00f6lgesel farkl\u0131la\u015fmayla birlikte kentle\u015fmi\u015f oldu\u011funu g\u00f6steriyor. Kentle\u015fme kapitalist kalk\u0131nma modeliyle yak\u0131n bir ili\u015fki i\u00e7indedir. Prekapitalist toplumlarda kent merkezleri kural de\u011fil her zaman istisnayd\u0131. Bu nedenle, bir \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde kapitalist kalk\u0131nma modelini ve \u00f6zellikle end\u00fcst\u00adriyel kalk\u0131nmay\u0131 izleyen kentle\u015fme modeli, ge\u00e7 18. Y\u00fczy\u0131l ve erken 19. Y\u00fczy\u0131l\u00adda Bat\u0131 Avrupa’daki ve Amerika Birle\u015fik Devletleri’nin do\u011fu k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131ndaki \u00fcss\u00fcnden yay\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Tablo 1 ‘de, bu Avrupa (\u00f6zellikle Bat\u0131 Avrupa), Kuzey Ame\u00adrika ve Okyanusya’da \u015fehrin nispeten erken h\u00e2kimiyetine yans\u0131m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u0130\u00e7lerinde en erken geli\u015feni, 1851 n\u00fcfus say\u0131m\u0131na g\u00f6re y\u00fczde 50 olan \u015fehir n\u00fcfusuyla d\u00fcnya\u00adn\u0131n ilk kent a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131kl\u0131 toplumu oldu\u011fu ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan Birle\u015fik Krall\u0131k’t\u0131. 1914’\u00fcn he\u00admen \u00f6ncesinde Almanya onu izleyen ikinci b\u00fcy\u00fck ekonomiydi.<\/p>\n
\"haynes1\"<\/a>Tablo 1<\/span>: B\u00f6lgeler g\u00f6re kentlerin y\u00fczdelik paylar\u0131 (Kaynak: BM Kentsel N\u00fcfus Projeksiyonlar\u01312)<\/sup><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n
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\u0130leri d\u00fcnyada devrin insanlar\u0131na 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l \u015fehirler \u00e7a\u011f\u0131ym\u0131\u015f gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnmek\u00adle birlikte, k\u00fcresel olarak \u015fehirler h\u00e2l\u00e2 kural de\u011fil b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde istisnayd\u0131.3<\/sup> Tab\u00adlo 1, 20. y\u00fczy\u0131lda k\u0131tan\u0131n ekonomik durumundaki ini\u015f \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015flara kar\u015f\u0131n, Latin Amerika’n\u0131n kentle\u015fme yoluna girmeye ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterir. Bug\u00fcn Avrupa, Ku\u00adzey Amerika, Okyanusya ve Latin Amerika b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle o kadar \u00e7ok kentle\u015fmi\u015ftir ki gelecekte kentlerin pay\u0131nda ancak s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 bir de\u011fi\u015fiklik olurken, gene de muh\u00adtemelen \u015fehirlerin \u00f6rg\u00fctlenme tarz\u0131nda daha b\u00fcy\u00fck de\u011fi\u015fiklikler g\u00f6r\u00fclecektir. B\u00fc\u00ady\u00fck de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fi g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz yerler Afrika ve Asya’d\u0131r. Tablo 1, 20. Y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ilk yar\u0131s\u0131nda bir art\u0131\u015f olmakla birlikte, bu k\u0131talarda kentlere ge\u00e7i\u015fin ger\u00e7ekte 20. Y\u00fcz\u00ady\u0131l\u0131n ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131nda ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve bir erken 21. Y\u00fczy\u0131l g\u00f6r\u00fcng\u00fcs\u00fc olarak h\u0131zla devam etti\u011fini g\u00f6sterir. Bundan en fazla etkilenenler d\u00fcnyada en kalabal\u0131k n\u00fcfu\u00adsa sahip iki \u00fclkedir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, \u00c7in’de kentsel n\u00fcfus 1950’de sadece y\u00fczde 12,5 i\u00adken 2000’de y\u00fczde 36’yd\u0131; 2030’da y\u00fczde 60 olaca\u011f\u0131 tahmin ediliyor. 1950’de y\u00fczde 17,3 kentsel n\u00fcfusuyla Hindistan \u00c7in’in \u00f6n\u00fcndeyken, daha yava\u015f geli\u015fme g\u00f6steren kentsel n\u00fcfus 1981’de y\u00fczde 23’e, 2000’de ise y\u00fczde 29’a \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ra\u00adkam\u0131n 2030’da y\u00fczde 40’\u0131 a\u015faca\u011f\u0131 tahmin ediliyor. Sahraalt\u0131 Afrika da h\u0131zla kent- le\u015fiyor – 1990’da yakla\u015f\u0131k y\u00fczde 28’den 2010’da y\u00fczde 37’ye y\u00fckselen kentsel n\u00fcfusun 2025’te muhtemelen y\u00fczde 45’e y\u00fckselece\u011fi tahmin ediliyor.4<\/sup><\/p>\n
B\u00f6lgesel rakamlarda ufak bir yan\u0131lma pay\u0131 var \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc d\u00fcnya n\u00fcfusunun \u00e7o\u00ad\u011fu Latin Amerika (y\u00fczde 5), Afrika (y\u00fczde 12) ve en ba\u015fta Asya’da (y\u00fczde 60) ya\u015far. En y\u00fcksek kentsel n\u00fcfus pay\u0131na sahip olan ileri \u00fclkelerde, 1950’de d\u00fcnya kentsel n\u00fcfusunun yar\u0131s\u0131ndan fazlas\u0131 ya\u015f\u0131yordu. Ama 1980’lerin ba\u015f\u0131nda d\u00fcnya kentsel n\u00fcfusunun \u00e7o\u011fu, \u015fimdiden baz\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 deyimle “K\u00fcresel G\u00fc- ney”de, fiilen az geli\u015fmi\u015f \u00fclkelerde ya\u015famaktayd\u0131. Bug\u00fcn kentlerde ikamet eden\u00adlerin sadece y\u00fczde 28 kadar\u0131 ileri \u00fclkelerde ya\u015farken, 2030’a geldi\u011fimizde rakam y\u00fczde 17’ye d\u00fc\u015fecek. “G\u00fcney”de \u015fehirlerde ikamet edenlerin (ve potansiyel i\u015f\u00e7i\u00adlerin) bu yo\u011funla\u015fmas\u0131 devam ediyor. Bunun \u00f6nemli bir g\u00f6stergesi, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n me- ga\u015fehirlerini listeleyen Tablo 2’de g\u00f6r\u00fclebilir. Mega\u015fehir n\u00fcfusu 10 milyonu a\u015fan \u015fehir olarak tan\u0131mlan\u0131r. 1950’de tek mega\u015fehir vard\u0131: New York. 2000’e gelindi\u00ad\u011finde, 11’i geli\u015fmekte olan d\u00fcnyada yer alan 17 mega\u015fehir bulunuyordu; 2015’te say\u0131n\u0131n 21 olaca\u011f\u0131 tahmin ediliyor. 1976’da Asya’da iki mega\u015fehir varken, 2000’de 17 mega\u015fehirin 10 tanesi bu k\u0131tadayd\u0131. Bu mega\u015fehirlerin n\u00fcfusunu ve\u00adren Tablo 2’den sadece bunlar\u0131n say\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n de\u011fil, b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fcklerinin de artt\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6\u00adr\u00fclebilir – ger\u00e7ekten de b\u00fcy\u00fcme h\u0131z\u0131 o kadar fazlad\u0131r ki bu verilerin b\u00fcy\u00fck b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc sadece yakla\u015f\u0131k olabilir.<\/p>\n
Ama mega\u015fehirlerin b\u00fcy\u00fcmesi ne kadar \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 olursa olsun, d\u00fcnya n\u00fcfusu\u00adnun \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011fu k\u00fcresel ekonomiyle do\u011frudan ili\u015fkisi belki daha az olan ve d\u00fcn\u00adya medyas\u0131n\u0131n dikkatini \u00e7ekenlerden muhtemelen \u00e7ok daha keskin sorunlar ya\u015fa\u00adyan k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u015fehir ve kasabalarda ya\u015far. \u00d6rne\u011fin, 1950’de n\u00fcfusu 1 milyonu a\u015fan 86 \u015fehir varken, 2010’a gelindi\u011finde bu say\u0131 belki 500’\u00fc ge\u00e7mi\u015fti. Bunlar\u0131n alt\u0131n\u00adda da d\u00fcnyan\u0131n toplam kentsel n\u00fcfusunun y\u00fczde 60’\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturan n\u00fcfusu on bin\u00adler ve y\u00fcz binleri bulan \u00e7ok daha fazla say\u0131da kasaba ve \u015fehir vard\u0131.5<\/sup><\/p>\n
\"haynes2\"<\/a>Tablo 2<\/span>: K\u00fcresel mega\u015fehirlerin do\u011fu\u015fu (milyon n\u00fcfus olarak – \u00a0Kaynak:BM D\u00fcnya Kentle\u015fme Beklentileri, 2009 Revizyonu)<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n
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\u015eehirler Nas\u0131l B\u00fcy\u00fcyor?<\/span><\/h5>\n
Her g\u00fcn d\u00fcnyan\u0131n \u015fehir ve kasabalar\u0131n\u0131n n\u00fcfusuna yakla\u015f\u0131k 200.000 ki\u015fi ek\u00adleniyor. Bu ayda 5 milyon ya da y\u0131lda 60 milyon demektir -19. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n tamam\u0131n\u00adda Avrupa’n\u0131n kentsel n\u00fcfusuna eklenen 45 milyondan fazlas\u0131 bir y\u0131lda eklenmi\u015ftir. Kentsel n\u00fcfus art\u0131\u015f\u0131 ya -do\u011fum oran\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6l\u00fcm oran\u0131n\u0131 a\u015fmas\u0131yla- do\u00ad\u011fal yolla art\u0131\u015fla ya g\u00f6\u00e7ler veya \u015fehirlerin kom\u015fu birimleri i\u00e7ine \u00e7ekerek etrafinda- ki k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgeyi kaplayan d\u0131\u015fa do\u011fru geni\u015flemesiyle ger\u00e7ekle\u015fir. 19. y\u00fczy\u0131lda kasabalar salg\u0131n hastal\u0131klar\u0131n ba\u015fl\u0131ca merkezleriydi; genelde \u00e7ok uzun d\u00f6nemler boyunca buralarda \u00f6l\u00fcm oranlar\u0131 do\u011fum oranlar\u0131ndan y\u00fcksekti. Bu nedenle, art\u0131\u015f en ba\u015fta gerek bir \u00fclkede gerekse (\u00f6rne\u011fin, Amerika Birle\u015fik Devletleri’nde ol\u00addu\u011fu gibi) uluslararas\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131rlar ya da denizleri a\u015fan k\u0131rdan kente g\u00f6\u00e7lere ba\u011flana\u00adbilirdi. Bug\u00fcn, kentsel \u00f6l\u00fcm oranlar\u0131 \u00f6zellikle yoksullar i\u00e7in h\u00e2l\u00e2 \u00e7ok y\u00fcksek d\u00fczeylerde seyretmekle birlikte, b\u00fct\u00fcn d\u00fcnyada kentlerde sa\u011fl\u0131k ko\u015fullar\u0131 \u00e7ok da\u00adha iyidir. Ama do\u011furganl\u0131k d\u00f6nemindeki gen\u00e7 n\u00fcfusta, bir\u00e7ok kent merkezinde ar\u00adt\u0131\u015fta do\u011fal art\u0131\u015f\u0131n daha \u00f6nemli bir rol\u00fc vard\u0131r. Oysa \u00f6zellikle sanayile\u015fmenin ilk evrelerinde, h\u00e2l\u00e2 \u00f6nem ta\u015f\u0131yan ve en \u00e7ok \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kan k\u0131rdan \u015fehre ve k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck mer\u00adkezlerden daha b\u00fcy\u00fcklerine g\u00f6\u00e7t\u00fc. K\u00fcresel \u00e7apta k\u0131rdan \u015fehre g\u00fcnl\u00fck g\u00f6\u00e7\u00fcn 150.000 ki\u015fi oldu\u011fu tahmin ediliyor. Neden? Bu konuda en kaba d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce yolu it\u00adme ve \u00e7ekme bask\u0131lar\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmektir. \u0130nsanlar yoksulluk ko\u015fullar\u0131 y\u00fc\u00adz\u00fcnden k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgelerden d\u0131\u015fa itilir ve daha iyi bir ya\u015fam \u00fcmidiyle \u015fehirlerin \u00e7ekicili\u011fine kap\u0131l\u0131rlar.<\/p>\n
K\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgelerin \u015fehir sakinlerinin ka\u00e7maya can att\u0131\u011f\u0131 s\u0131\u011f\u0131naklar oldu\u011funu s\u00f6yleyen idealle\u015ftirilmi\u015f bat\u0131l\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn aksine, ko\u015fullar k\u0131rsal alanlarda \u00e7ok daha k\u00f6t\u00fcd\u00fcr… \u015eehirler yoksul olabilir ama k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgeler h\u00e2l\u00e2 daha yoksul. \u00c7\u0131plak ger\u00e7ek \u015fu ki geli\u015fmekte olan d\u00fcnyada \u015fehir sakinlerinin a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 yukar\u0131 \u00fc\u00e7te biri yok\u00adsulluk s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131 alt\u0131nda ya\u015farken, k\u0131rsal n\u00fcfusun ancak \u00fc\u00e7te biri bu s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fcnde ya\u015far. Geli\u015fmekte olan d\u00fcnyada kentle\u015fmeyle ilgili tipik bir ara\u015ft\u0131rman\u0131n sonu\u00e7\u00adlar\u0131na g\u00f6re, deh\u015fet verici bar\u0131nma ko\u015fullar\u0131na, temiz su ve hizmetlerin, asgari sa\u011f\u00adl\u0131k hizmetlerinin bulunmay\u0131\u015f\u0131na ve i\u015f bulma \u015fans\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7ok az olu\u015funa kar\u015f\u0131n kent yoksullar\u0131 ortalama olarak “hemen hemen her t\u00fcrl\u00fc toplumsal ve ekonomik refah g\u00f6stergesinde k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgelerde ya\u015fayan akrabalar\u0131ndan daha iyi durumdad\u0131r.” \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc milyonlarca insana g\u00f6re \u015fehirler problem de\u011fil \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmd\u00fcr.6<\/sup><\/p>\n
Demek ki kentsel sorunlara kar\u015f\u0131n, \u015fehirlerde gelirler -i\u015f bulmak son derece zorken bile- genelde k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgelerdekinden y\u00fcksektir. \u015eehirlerde ulusal ortala\u00admaya g\u00f6re ki\u015fi ba\u015f\u0131na d\u00fc\u015fen gelir e\u011filim olarak daha y\u00fcksektir \u2014 Birle\u015fik Kral- l\u0131k’ta Londra’ya bir bak\u0131n. Ama ileri \u00fclkelerde u\u00e7urum s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131d\u0131r. Daha yoksul\u00a0\u00fclkelerde b\u00fcy\u00fck \u015fehirlerde gelirler ulusal ortalaman\u0131n iki ile d\u00f6rt kat\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki bir y\u00fckseklikte olabilir. \u015eanghay’da \u00fc\u00e7 kat fazla oldu\u011fu hesaplan\u0131yor; Bangkok’ta\u00adki rakam da benzerdir.7<\/sup> Hindistan’da ortalama ki\u015fi ba\u015f\u0131na d\u00fc\u015fen gelir yakla\u015f\u0131k 1.500 dolarken, Yeni Delhi’de 3.500 dolardan fazlad\u0131r. Tabii ki ortalamalar \u00e7ok ya\u00adn\u0131lt\u0131c\u0131 olabilir; ama \u015fehrin gecekondu semtinde oturup y\u0131l\u0131n sadece sekiz ay\u0131 \u00e7a\u00adl\u0131\u015fan bir i\u015f\u00e7i, y\u0131lda ancak d\u00f6rt ay i\u015f bulabilen k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgelerdeki bir tar\u0131m emek\u00e7isine g\u00f6re gene de daha iyi bir ya\u015fam s\u00fcrebilir.<\/p>\n
Toplumsal s\u0131n\u0131flar bak\u0131m\u0131ndan muazzam farkl\u0131l\u0131klar g\u00f6r\u00fclmesine ra\u011fmen, \u015fehirde ba\u015fka ko\u015fullar da -\u00f6rne\u011fin, sa\u011fl\u0131k durumu ve (lafta bile kalsa) sa\u011fl\u0131k hiz\u00admetlerinden yararlanma d\u00fczeyi- genelde daha iyidir. Bunun b\u00fcy\u00fck bir istisnas\u0131, en yoksul kesimi daha fazla etkileyip etkilemedi\u011fi h\u00e2l\u00e2 tart\u0131\u015fma konusu bile olsa, a\u00ad\u011f\u0131rl\u0131kl\u0131 olarak kentsel bir g\u00f6r\u00fcng\u00fc olan HIV\/AIDS’tir. Kentlerdeki sa\u011fl\u0131k kurulu\u015f\u00adlar\u0131 ne kadar yetersiz olursa olsun, k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgelerdekilerden gene de genelde daha iyi durumdad\u0131rlar. Bir grup veriye g\u00f6re, d\u00fcnyada k\u0131rsal n\u00fcfusun sadece y\u00fczde 7- 8’i rezervuarl\u0131 (alafranga), y\u00fczde 47’si alaturka tuvalete sahipken, di\u011ferleri tuva\u00adletten yoksundur. Kent yoksullar\u0131 i\u00e7in kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131labilir tahminler y\u00fczde 28 ve y\u00fczde 52’dir.8<\/sup> Ayn\u0131 u\u00e7urum temiz suya eri\u015fme konusunda da s\u00f6z konusudur. \u015ee\u00adhirler ula\u015f\u0131lamasa bile daha renkli bir hayat ve daha b\u00fcy\u00fck f\u0131rsatlar da sunarlar. K\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgelerdeyse, aile ve kom\u015fular\u0131n g\u00f6zleri \u00f6n\u00fcnde g\u00fcnl\u00fck bitmez t\u00fckenmez i\u015f derdi i\u00e7inde ya\u015fama beklentisi \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kar. \u0130lk f\u0131rsatta kad\u0131nlar\u0131n k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgeler\u00adden g\u00f6\u00e7 etme hevesinin bir nedeni de budur. \u015eehirlerde se\u00e7enekleri daha s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 bi\u00adle olsa, yine de evde oturmaktan daha iyi bir ya\u015fam s\u00fcrebilirler.<\/p>\n
Elbette insanlar\u0131n neden \u00e7ekme ve itme fakt\u00f6rlerine kap\u0131ld\u0131klar\u0131 sorusunu ba\u00adsit\u00e7e cevaplamak \u00f6yle \u00e7ok karma\u015f\u0131k de\u011fildir. Kapitalist geli\u015fme kent ve k\u0131r ara\u00ads\u0131ndaki farkl\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131 vurgulayan e\u015fitsiz bir geli\u015fme s\u00fcrecidir. Yoksulluk ve zenginli\u011fi yan yana \u00fcretip hem k\u0131rsal hem de kentsel toprak m\u00fclkiyeti d\u00e2hil m\u00fclk sahipli\u011finin yo\u011funla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir m\u00fclks\u00fczle\u015ftirme s\u00fcrecini te\u015fvik eder. Hem \u00e7ift\u00e7iler hem i\u015f\u00e7iler k\u00fcresel ekonomiye entegre olduklar\u0131ndan, onlar\u0131n kaderleri de meta fiyatlar\u0131n\u0131n dalgalanmas\u0131 ve ekonomik krizle belirlenmeye ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Tefecile\u00adre bor\u00e7lanmak, k\u0131r yoksullar\u0131n\u0131n d\u00f6nem d\u00f6nem zarar g\u00f6rd\u00fckleri yeni kaz\u0131klar ye\u00admeleridir. Bu nedenle, hem itme ve \u00e7ekme unsurlar\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klayan daha derin bir s\u00fcrecin par\u00e7as\u0131 olan g\u00f6\u00e7, buna katk\u0131da bulunur. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc g\u00f6\u00e7menler ya \u015fehirde ya\u00ad\u015famay\u0131 \u00f6\u011frenir ya da ailelerini ge\u00e7indirmek i\u00e7in evlerine para (havale) g\u00f6nderir ve belli aral\u0131klarla kendileri de memleketlerine gidip gelirler.9<\/sup><\/p>\n
Farkl\u0131 geli\u015fme tiplerindeki temel kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131\u011fa rastlad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z yer buras\u0131d\u0131r. Bir yol daha modern end\u00fcstriyel ve hizmet ekonomisinin geni\u015flemesinden ge\u00e7er. Bu\u00adrada \u00e7ekme k\u00fcresel ekonominin dinamizminin yans\u0131mas\u0131n\u0131n hi\u00e7 de k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir par\u00ad\u00e7as\u0131 de\u011fildir. Bat\u0131 piyasas\u0131na hizmet eden \u00c7in \u015fehirlerinin b\u00fcy\u00fcmesi temel \u00f6rnek\u00adtir, ama ba\u015fka \u00f6rnekler de vard\u0131r. Tehlikeli s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fc yuvalar\u0131 bile olsalar, fabrikalar k\u0131rsal ya da kentsel ekonominin u\u00e7lar\u0131nda hayatta kalma m\u00fccadelesi verenler i\u00e7in daha cazip yerler olabilirler. Michael Burawoy’in “S\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fc lanetten \u00e7ok bir ayr\u0131\u00adcal\u0131kt\u0131r” s\u00f6zleri tam da bu anlamda yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.10<\/sup> K\u0131r\u0131lganl\u0131k h\u00e2l\u00e2 mevcuttur – 2008’de \u00c7in’in Shenzhen ve Guangdong \u00f6zel ekonomik b\u00f6lgelerinde milyonlarca i\u015f\u00e7inin i\u015ften at\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 7.000 fabrikan\u0131n kapand\u0131\u011f\u0131 tahmin ediliyor- ama makineler \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 s\u00fcrece bunlar\u0131 i\u015fletenler i\u00e7in b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde istikrar vard\u0131r.<\/p>\n
Ama kentle\u015fmenin ikinci yolu d\u00fcnya ekonomisinin Asya, Latin Amerika ve Afrika’daki t\u00f6kezleyen par\u00e7alar\u0131nda da g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Piyasa dinamizmi ve yoksullu\u011fun ortadan kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 konusunda edilen bunca lafa ra\u011fmen, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n bir\u00e7ok par\u00ad\u00e7as\u0131nda yoksul ekonomiler son on y\u0131llarda eski on y\u0131llara g\u00f6re daha k\u00f6t\u00fc perfor\u00admans g\u00f6sterdiler. 1960’lar ve 1970’lerde, b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak geli\u015fmekte olan d\u00fcnyada ki\u015fi ba\u015f\u0131 gelir y\u0131ll\u0131k y\u00fczde 3 art\u0131\u015f g\u00f6stermi\u015fken, neoliberal 1980’ler ve 1990’lar- da sadece y\u00fczde 1,5 artm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bu ortalaman\u0131n gerisindeki baz\u0131 \u00fclkelerde gerile\u00admeler g\u00f6r\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. Ama “b\u00fcy\u00fcmesiz kentle\u015fme” durmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Ger\u00e7ekten de ekonomik ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131k bunu h\u0131zland\u0131rm\u0131\u015f gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcyordu – bu belki de k\u0131rsal ke\u00adsimde ko\u015fullar\u0131n daha k\u00f6t\u00fcye oldu\u011funa i\u015faretti. Bu daha \u00f6nce de g\u00f6r\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. Mi- ke Davis, Belfast m\u00fchendislik, gemi imalat\u0131, tekstil, vb. temelinde geli\u015firken, Dublin’in klasik bir gecekondu \u015fehri haline gelip \u0130rlanda’n\u0131n k\u0131rsal kesimlerinde\u00adki yoksullu\u011fu besledi\u011fi ve \u0130rlanda ekonomisine girip \u00e7\u0131kan mamul mallar\u0131n kul\u00adlan\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 olumsuz etkiledi\u011fi 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l \u0130rlanda’s\u0131na i\u015faret eder. Ama serbest piyasa politikalar\u0131, bor\u00e7 krizleri ve yap\u0131sal uyarlama programlar\u0131 eski yap\u0131lar\u0131 y\u0131k\u00adt\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan, bug\u00fcn bu tip bir b\u00fcy\u00fcme \u00e7ok daha yayg\u0131nd\u0131r. Ele\u015ftirel bir BM raporu, kentsel b\u00fcy\u00fcmenin bu tipinde “b\u00fcy\u00fcme ve refah oda\u011f\u0131 olmak yerine, \u015fehirlerin va\u00ads\u0131fs\u0131z, korunmas\u0131z ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck \u00fccretli kay\u0131t d\u0131\u015f\u0131 hizmet sanayileri ve mesleklerde \u00e7a\u00adl\u0131\u015fan bir art\u0131k-n\u00fcfus \u00e7\u00f6pl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc” oldu\u011funu s\u00f6yler.13<\/sup><\/p>\n
\u00c7in’i Afrika’n\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fck devleti Nijerya’yla kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rarak \u00e7eli\u015fkili model\u00adleri g\u00f6rebiliriz. \u00c7in’de 1950-2000 aras\u0131nda ki\u015fi ba\u015f\u0131 gelir \u00e7ok d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck bir temelde de olsa yakla\u015f\u0131k sekiz kat artt\u0131. Kentsel n\u00fcfus y\u00fczde 13’ten y\u00fczde 36’ya y\u00fcksel\u00addi. Ama (yakla\u015f\u0131k 150 milyon n\u00fcfuslu) Nijerya’da 1950-2000 aras\u0131nda gene \u00e7ok d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck olan ki\u015fi ba\u015f\u0131na d\u00fc\u015fen milli gelir sadece y\u00fczde 50 artm\u0131\u015f ve uzun d\u00f6nem\u00adler az \u00e7ok dura\u011fan kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. (Britanya’n\u0131nki ayn\u0131 d\u00f6nemde neredeyse \u00fc\u00e7 kat art\u0131\u015f g\u00f6stermi\u015fti.) Ama kentlerin n\u00fcfustaki pay\u0131 yine de y\u00fczde 10’dan y\u00fczde 42’ye y\u00fckselmi\u015f ve 350.000 n\u00fcfuslu bir \u015fehir olan Lagos muhtemelen yakla\u015f\u0131k 10,5 mil\u00adyona y\u00fckselmi\u015fti.14<\/sup> Bu, g\u00f6\u00e7menlerin burada ya da ba\u015fka \u015fehirlerin gecekondula\u00adr\u0131nda daha iyi bir ya\u015fam s\u00fcrebilecekleri olgusunu de\u011fi\u015ftirmez. Ama ger\u00e7ekten de \u00e7o\u011funluk i\u00e7in gelece\u011fin ge\u00e7ici i\u015f\u00e7i, bir t\u00fcr seyyar sat\u0131c\u0131, temizlik\u00e7i, emek\u00e7i, dad\u0131, hizmet\u00e7i ya da fahi\u015fe hayat\u0131 anlam\u0131na gelir. A\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7as\u0131, bu farkl\u0131l\u0131klar \u00f6nemli \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fc\u00adlerde az \u00e7ok kay\u0131tl\u0131 ekonomik ili\u015fkiler aras\u0131ndaki denge y\u00f6n\u00fcnden kent ya\u015fam\u0131\u00adn\u0131n farkl\u0131 modellerine i\u015faret eder.<\/p>\n
\u00a0\u015eehir Ya\u015fam\u0131n\u0131n Do\u011fas\u0131<\/h5>\n
Yoksul d\u00fcnyan\u0131n palazlanan yeni \u015fehir ve kasabalar\u0131nda ya\u015fam neye benzer? \u0130leri kapitalist devletlerin kentsel geli\u015fme modelini mi izler? Farkl\u0131 b\u00f6lgelerin de\u00ad\u011fi\u015fik kasaba ve \u015fehirlerinin aralar\u0131nda ve i\u00e7lerinde zengin \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fe rastlar\u0131z. A\u00adma irdelememizi oturtulabilece\u011fimiz baz\u0131 ortak unsurlar vard\u0131r. \u0130lki de\u011fi\u015fimin ak\u0131l almaz h\u0131z\u0131d\u0131r. Kasabalar ve hatta k\u00f6yler tek bireyin \u00f6mr\u00fc s\u00fcresince \u015fehirle- \u015febilir. \u0130stikrar ancak k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgelerden g\u00f6\u00e7 eden insan say\u0131s\u0131 azalmaya ba\u015flad\u0131\u00ad\u011f\u0131nda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kabilir.<\/p>\n
Sonra da dikkatimizi e\u015fitsizlik d\u00fczeylerine y\u00f6neltebiliriz. E\u015fitsizli\u011fin fizik\u00adsel belirtileri vard\u0131r. \u015eehirlerin i\u00e7 kesimlerine al\u0131\u015fveri\u015f merkezleri ve ticaret komp\u00adleksleri h\u00e2kimdir. 125 \u00fclkedeki butikleriyle Cartier, yakla\u015f\u0131k 120 \u00fclkede faaliyet g\u00f6steren McDonald’s ya da Kentucky Fried Chicken’\u0131 (109 \u00fclke), vb. ge\u00e7er. Lo- uis Vuitton’\u0131n 62 \u00fclkede ma\u011fazalar\u0131 olsa da k\u00fcrenin s\u00fcper zenginleri Londra, Pa\u00adris ve New York’a seyahat edebilir ya da \u00f6zel al\u0131\u015fveri\u015flerini yapan g\u00f6revlilerini g\u00f6nderebilirler. K\u00fcresel \u015fehirlerde havalimanlar\u0131yla Marriott Hotel (70 \u00fclke) ara\u00ads\u0131ndaki mesafe, muhtemelen k\u00fcresel sistemin d\u00f6rt bir yan\u0131nda farkl\u0131 de\u011fildir. Ye\u00adrel ayr\u0131cal\u0131kl\u0131lar bu merkezlere se\u00e7kin konutlar\u0131ndan, bazen g\u00fcvenlikli sitelerden -“zenginlerin kaleleri”-gelirler. Ama kentteki kitleler i\u00e7in ya\u015fam daha \u00e7ok kenar mahallelerde ge\u00e7er. Davis, “g\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fcn\u00fc ayd\u0131nlatan \u0131\u015f\u0131l \u0131\u015f\u0131l \u015fehirler”de ya\u015famak yerine, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n kent yoksullar\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7o\u011fu “hava kirlili\u011fi, a\u00e7\u0131k kanalizasyonlar ve \u00e7\u00f6p y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n ortas\u0131nda mezbeleleri mesken tutarlar” diye yazar.15<\/sup> Tabii ki bu mek\u00e2n ve binalar\u0131n fiziksel e\u015fitsizli\u011finin gerisinde servet, gelir ve g\u00fc\u00e7 e\u015fitsizlik\u00adleri yatar.<\/p>\n
Bir tahmine g\u00f6re, bu y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda d\u00fcnya n\u00fcfusunun sadece y\u00fczde 5’i e\u00adkonomik e\u015fitsizli\u011fin azalmakta oldu\u011fu devletlerde ya\u015f\u0131yor. Yakla\u015f\u0131k y\u00fczde 60’\u0131 bu e\u015fitsizli\u011fin \u00e7o\u011fald\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde piyasa yanl\u0131s\u0131 politikalara sar\u0131lm\u0131\u015f devlet\u00adlerde ya\u015f\u0131yor.16<\/sup> Kentlerde e\u015fitsizlik d\u00fczeyi, ulusal ortalamalardan daha y\u00fcksek bir e\u011filim g\u00f6steriyor. Son on y\u0131llarda (Birle\u015fik Krall\u0131k ve ABD d\u00e2hil) kilit ileri eko\u00adnomilerde yeniden y\u00fckselmi\u015f olmakla birlikte, kalk\u0131nman\u0131n ilk a\u015famalar\u0131nda da\u00adha k\u00f6t\u00fc olma e\u011filimi de sergiliyor: “Geli\u015fmekte olan d\u00fcnyada kentlerde b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ekonomik e\u011filim artan e\u015fitsizliktir. 1990-2004 aras\u0131nda, n\u00fcfusun en yoksul be\u015fte birinin gelirden ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 pay y\u00fczde 4,6’dan y\u00fczde 3,9’a d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc.”17<\/sup> Neoliberal yorum\u00adcular\u0131n geli\u015fmekte olan \u015fehirlerde g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir orta s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n geli\u015fmekte oldu\u011funu g\u00f6s\u00adterme \u00e7abalar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131n, bu yeniden da\u011f\u0131l\u0131m\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc \u00fcste gitmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n
Kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rma i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lan e\u015fitsizlik \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fc, tam e\u015fitli\u011fi 0 ve tam e\u015fitsizli\u00ad\u011fi 1 rakam\u0131yla g\u00f6steren Gini katsay\u0131s\u0131d\u0131r. BM 0,4’l\u00fck bir Gini katsay\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 kendi belirledi\u011fi ko\u015fullar i\u00e7inde e\u015fitsizli\u011fin tehlikeli d\u00fczeylere ula\u015fmaya ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 a\u00adlarm d\u00fczeyi olarak belirlemi\u015ftir (Birle\u015fik Krall\u0131k’ta hane ba\u015f\u0131na d\u00fc\u015fen gelir bak\u0131\u00adm\u0131ndan Gini katsay\u0131s\u0131 yakla\u015f\u0131k 0,34’t\u00fcr). Tablo 3’ten g\u00f6r\u00fclebilece\u011fi gibi, Asya fiilen bu noktadayken (\u00c7in 0,45 d\u00fczeyinde) Latin Amerika ve Afrika bu noktay\u0131 \u00e7ok a\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00d6zellikle Latin Amerika ve Afrika’daki tek tek \u015fehirler \u00e7ok daha y\u00fcksek d\u00fczeylere sahiptir. 0,6 n\u00fcfusun \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011funu d\u0131\u015fta b\u0131rakan ve \u00fcst grubun kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131na \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan kritik e\u015fiktir. Bu bak\u0131mdan, en e\u015fitsiz \u015fehirlerin bir k\u0131sm\u0131, 0,7’den y\u00fcksek puanlar\u0131n \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc apartheid sonras\u0131 G\u00fcney Afrika’da bulunur – servetin a\u015fa\u011f\u0131ya damlayaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6yleyen hatal\u0131 varsay\u0131m\u0131yla serbest piyasa po\u00adlitikalar\u0131n\u0131n yol a\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131 felaketin bir ba\u015fka g\u00f6stergesi.18<\/sup><\/p>\n
Kent yoksullar\u0131n\u0131n say\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n k\u0131r yoksullar\u0131n\u0131n say\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 a\u015fmas\u0131yla birlikte, as\u00adl\u0131nda sefalet giderek daha \u00e7ok bir kentsel g\u00f6r\u00fcng\u00fc haline geliyor. Gelirler \u00f6nem\u00adli olmakla birlikte bu sefalet sadece gelirlerle ilgili de\u011fil. D\u00fcnya Bankas\u0131, a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 yoksulluk \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fc olarak g\u00fcnde 1 dolarla ge\u00e7inenlerin say\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 temel al\u0131r. Oysa bu t\u00fcr bir istatistik bir\u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck \u015fehirde g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz \u00e7ok daha y\u00fcksek ge\u00e7im gider\u00adlerini hesaba katmaz. Ama sefalet iyi konut, sa\u011fl\u0131k ve e\u011flenceye ula\u015fma, \u015fiddet ve su\u00e7tan zarar g\u00f6rme ve \u00f6nem ta\u015f\u0131yan bireysel ve kolektif se\u00e7imleri ger\u00e7ekten ya\u00adpabilmekten yoksun olmakla da ilgilidir.19<\/sup> En \u00e7ok baz\u0131 \u00fclkelerde olmak \u00fczere, kent yoksullar\u0131n\u0131n bir\u00e7o\u011fu ve hatta bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak kent n\u00fcfusu ya\u015fad\u0131klar\u0131 yer\u00adlerde g\u00fcvenceye sahip de\u011fillerdir. Fiilen m\u00fclkiyeti sorunlu ve daval\u0131 olan yerler\u00adde bar\u0131n\u0131r ya da otururlar. Altyap\u0131n\u0131n geli\u015fmesini olumsuz etkileyen bu durum insanlar\u0131 bask\u0131ya ba\u011fl\u0131 ve a\u00e7\u0131k hale getirir. Baz\u0131 \u00fclkelerde bu insanlardan sahip olmad\u0131klar\u0131 ikamet izinleri istenir. \u00c7in’de 80-120 milyon aras\u0131nda insan bu izne sahip olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan, yetkililerin a\u00e7abilece\u011fi davalar kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda savunmas\u0131z kal\u0131yor.20<\/p>\n
\"haynes3\"<\/a>Tablo 3:<\/span> Yoksul \u00fclkelerde e\u015fitsizlik ve yoksulluk, 2000-2005 (Kaynak: BM, Habitat, 2008-2009 verilerinden derlenmi\u015ftir.21)<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n
\u00a0<\/a><\/p>\n
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Kentsel yoksullu\u011fun boyutlar\u0131 k\u0131smen \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma ili\u015fkilerinin do\u011fas\u0131n\u0131n bir i\u015f\u00adlevidir. Yabanc\u0131 \u015firketlerin i\u015f\u00e7ileri k\u00fcresel markalar i\u00e7in \u00fcretim yapmalar\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131n\u00addan yo\u011fun s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcye maruz kal\u0131rlar. Ama i\u00e7lerinde en b\u00fcy\u00fc\u011f\u00fc olan kay\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131 sekt\u00f6rde \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan kitlelerden e\u011filim olarak daha iyi durumda olan yerli sermaye\u00adnin istihdam etti\u011fi \u00e7al\u0131\u015fanlardan genelde daha iyi \u00fccret al\u0131r ve daha iyi ko\u015fullara sahiplerdir. Kay\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131 ekonomiler \u015fehirlerde her zaman vard\u0131 – Henry Mayhew u\u00adzun uzad\u0131ya 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l ortas\u0131ndaki Londra’y\u0131 anlatm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Ama yeni \u015fehirlerde ka- y\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131l\u0131k muazzam boyutlara ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Latin Amerika’da tar\u0131m d\u0131\u015f\u0131 istihdam\u0131n yakla\u015f\u0131k y\u00fczde 51 ‘i, Asya’da y\u00fczde 65’i ve Afrika’da y\u00fczde 72’sinin kay\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131 e\u00adkonomi oldu\u011fu s\u00f6yleniyor.22<\/sup> Geli\u015fmekte olan \u00fclkeler genelinde, i\u015f\u00e7ilerin a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 yukar\u0131 \u00fc\u00e7te biri kay\u0131tl\u0131 sekt\u00f6rde, \u00fc\u00e7te ikisi kay\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131 sekt\u00f6rde ge\u00e7im m\u00fccadelesi veriyor.<\/p>\n
Bu kay\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131 kent yoksullar\u0131na kimi zaman marjinal dense de bu ko\u015fullarda marjinalli\u011fin “efsane” oldu\u011fu ileri s\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Janice Perlman’\u0131n s\u00f6ylemi\u015f ol\u00addu\u011fu gibi, yoksullar “ekonomik olarak marjinal de\u011fil s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fclendir; sosyal ba\u00adk\u0131mdan marjinal de\u011fil reddedilendir; k\u00fclt\u00fcrel bak\u0131mdan marjinal de\u011fil damgal\u0131\u00add\u0131r ve siyasal bak\u0131mdan marjinal de\u011fil y\u00f6nlendirilip bast\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.”23<\/sup>Ayr\u0131ca “ka- y\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n” kendisi de de\u011fi\u015fiklik g\u00f6sterdi\u011finden, marjinalli\u011fin her derecesi de farkl\u0131l\u0131k g\u00f6sterir. Daha fazla \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde kay\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011fa kay\u0131lmas\u0131 \u00f6nemliyken, bu kate\u00adgorinin ba\u015fkentle \u00e7ok de\u011fi\u015fik ili\u015fkiler i\u00e7indeki \u015fehir ve kasabalardaki \u00e7ok de\u011fi\u015fik gruplar\u0131 i\u00e7ine ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00f6ne s\u00fcr\u00fclebilir. Jeremy Seabrook, Mumbai’deki yerle\u015fimle\u00adri betimlerken bunu k\u0131smen ortaya koymu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n
Buradaki insanlar \u015fimdiden i\u00e7ine girilemezmi\u015f gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnen \u015fehir ekonomi\u00adsinin bo\u015fluklar\u0131nda i\u015f bulmal\u0131d\u0131r. \u00c7\u00f6p toplay\u0131c\u0131l\u0131kla, \u00e7\u00f6pten toplanan pa\u00e7avra ve\u00adya metaller ya da plastikleri satarak, yeniden d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrerek, Engels’in \u0130ngiltere’deki Black Country betimlemelerini an\u0131msatan d\u00f6k\u00fcmhanelerde ve me\u00adtal i\u015flerinde emek harcayarak, el arabas\u0131 \u00e7ekerek ya da dilenerek, fahi\u015felik ya da ka\u00e7ak\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k yaparak, uyu\u015fturucu ticareti ya da \u00e7okuluslu \u015firketlere ta\u015feronlukla pa\u00admuk ipli\u011fine ba\u011fl\u0131 bir istikrar yakalayarak, \u015fort ya da jean dikerek, logo bas\u0131lm\u0131\u015f spor giysileri \u00fcreterek, ayakkab\u0131 boyac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ya da k\u00e2\u011f\u0131t satarak bir bi\u00e7imde kendi\u00adlerine i\u015f yarat\u0131rlar.<\/p>\n
Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n yard\u0131m\u0131, daha varl\u0131kl\u0131 olanlar\u0131 ve hatta karma\u015f\u0131k bir ekonomik sistemin alt basama\u011f\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturan \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n i\u015fletti\u011fi yeniden d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm zincirle\u00adrini destekleyen “kalabal\u0131k k\u00f6le ordusu”nun bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc yarat\u0131r.24<\/sup> Bu ba\u011flant\u0131\u00adlar, co\u011frafi olarak da yoksullar\u0131n asla \u00e7ok uzaklarda olmayaca\u011f\u0131 anlam\u0131na gelir – zenginin onlar\u0131n eme\u011fine, yoksullar\u0131n ise i\u015fe ihtiyac\u0131 vard\u0131r.<\/p>\n
Bu kay\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131 i\u015f\u00e7ilerin bir\u00e7o\u011fu kentsel d\u00fcnyan\u0131n gecekondular\u0131nda ya\u015far ya da bar\u0131n\u0131r -konutlar\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6pten bulunmu\u015f tahta par\u00e7alar\u0131, tu\u011fla, metal ve plastikten kondurulmu\u015ftur. BM, gecekondu yerle\u015fimlerini insanlar\u0131n ayn\u0131 \u00e7at\u0131 alt\u0131nda ya\u015fa\u00add\u0131klar\u0131 ve temiz sudan, kanalizasyon sisteminden, uygun bir ya\u015fam alan\u0131ndan, ya\u00ad\u015fanabilir bir konuttan, konut m\u00fclkiyetinden yoksun olduklar\u0131 yerle\u015fimler olarak tan\u0131mlar. D\u00fcnyada kentlerde ya\u015fayanlar\u0131n yakla\u015f\u0131k \u00fc\u00e7te biri, yoksul d\u00fcnyada da\u00adha kalabal\u0131k olmakla birlikte bu ko\u015fullarda ya\u015fayan gecekondu sakinleridir. Muh\u00adtemelen eksik hesaplanm\u0131\u015f say\u0131lar\u0131, bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak “gecekondu gezegeni” manzaras\u0131 sunan kent n\u00fcfusundan daha h\u0131zl\u0131 art\u0131yordur.25<\/sup> Ama bir\u00e7ok \u00fclkede kent yoksullar\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011fu gecekondularda ya\u015famaz- Hindistan’da y\u00fczde 80 kada\u00adr\u0131 gecekondu sakini de\u011fildir. Ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde b\u00fct\u00fcn gecekondu sakinleri de – en az\u0131n\u00addan gelirleri a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan- yoksul de\u011fildir.<\/p>\n
Kentin altyap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n en zay\u0131f oldu\u011fu yerler gecekondulard\u0131r. Geli\u015fme h\u0131z\u0131 ve kentle\u015fmenin g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc yerlerdeki nispeten d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck gelirler nedeniyle, d\u00fczelme u\u00admudu ba\u015fka bahara kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Temiz su ve kanalizasyon sistemleri in\u015fa etmek, ka\u00adt\u0131 at\u0131klardan kurtulmak, g\u00fcvenilir enerji kaynaklar\u0131 yaratmak, vb. hep pahal\u0131 ya\u00adt\u0131r\u0131mlard\u0131r. Kalk\u0131nmada itici g\u00fc\u00e7 olan devletler bunlara gereken \u00f6nceli\u011fi verme\u00addikleri gibi yerel y\u00f6netimler de kaynaklardan yoksundur. \u0130leri d\u00fcnyadaki yerel y\u00f6netimler ki\u015fi ba\u015f\u0131 y\u0131lda yakla\u015f\u0131k 3000 dolar harcarlarken, bu rakam\u0131n Asya’da 150 dolar, Latin Amerika’da 90 dolarve Afrika’da sadece 15 dolar oldu\u011fu hesap\u00adlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.26<\/sup> O zaman da demokrasinin olmay\u0131\u015f\u0131 ve yolsuzluklar iyile\u015fme y\u00f6n\u00fcn\u00adde a\u015fa\u011f\u0131dan gelen bask\u0131y\u0131 daha \u00e7ok ortadan kald\u0131rabiliyor. Bunun da ac\u0131 sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyor. Davis, “Nas\u0131l yoksul bedenler d\u00fcnyan\u0131n her yerinde asalak kaynarsa, pislik i\u00e7inde ya\u015famak da. varolu\u015fsal bak\u0131mdan iki insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n aras\u0131ndaki kaba \u00e7izgidir” der.27<\/sup><\/p>\n
Bu kar\u0131\u015f\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131 de\u011ferlendirmek kolay de\u011fil. Neoliberalizmi destekleyenlerin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra D\u00fcnya Bankas\u0131’yla \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015fenler kentsel geli\u015fmenin en olumlu unsur oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme e\u011filimindeler. Onlardan ikisi “Mucize olan ger\u00e7ekte d\u00fcnyan\u0131n bununla ne kadar k\u00f6t\u00fc ba\u015f etti\u011fi de\u011fil, nas\u0131l ba\u015fa \u00e7\u0131kabildi\u011fidir” diye yaz\u0131yordu. Asya konusunda yazan ayn\u0131 yazarlar, “b\u00fct\u00fcn olas\u0131l\u0131klar g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcne al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, Asya’n\u0131n geli\u015fmekte olan kentsel alanlar\u0131, benzer ko\u015fullarda ama daha y\u00fcksek gelir d\u00fczeyiyle b\u00fcy\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f olan 18. ve 19. Y\u00fczy\u0131l Avrupa \u015fehirlerinin tan\u0131k oldu\u011fu durumdan \u00f6nemli \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde daha iyidir” derler.28<\/sup><\/p>\n
Bu, onlar\u0131n daha \u00e7ok d\u00fczenlemenin terk edilmesi ve \u00f6zel sekt\u00f6re ya da \u00f6zel- kamu ortakl\u0131\u011f\u0131na daha \u00e7ok inan\u00e7 beslenmesi halinde i\u015flerin d\u00fczelmeye devam e\u00addece\u011fini ileri s\u00fcrmelerine olanak verir. Demek ki bu arg\u00fcman kent kitlelerinin analizine kadar geni\u015fletilmi\u015ftir. Bu yorumcular\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck sorunu, kay\u0131tl\u0131 sekt\u00f6r i\u00ad\u00e7indeki i\u015f\u00e7ilerin di\u011ferlerini d\u0131\u015flayarak kendi pozisyonlar\u0131n\u0131 savunan korumac\u0131 bir i\u015f\u00e7i aristokrasisi olarak hareket etmeleridir. Ama marjinal kalanlar sadece onlar\u0131n kap\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 a\u015f\u0131nd\u0131rmakla kalm\u0131yorlar. En umutsuz ko\u015fullarda hayatta kalma dirayet\u00adlerinin, bir \u015fans, az\u0131c\u0131k m\u00fclkiyet hakk\u0131 ve k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck sermaye sahibi olma imk\u00e2n\u0131 ve\u00adrildi\u011fi takdirde, yerel Bill Gates’ler olma yetene\u011finin sergilenmesi olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc \u00e7ekirdekten yeti\u015fme i\u015fverenler olduklar\u0131 da hayal ediliyor. Yoksul \u00fcl\u00adkelerin gecekondu sakinlerinin “tabii i\u015fverenler” olduklar\u0131 yutturulmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u00adyor. IMF ve D\u00fcnya Bankas\u0131 nerede yap\u0131sal de\u011fi\u015fim i\u00e7in bask\u0131 yapt\u0131ysa, sonu\u00e7 milyonlarca insan\u0131n daha kay\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131 sekt\u00f6re itilmesi olmu\u015ftur. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla, gecekon- dulardaki i\u015f potansiyeliyle ilgili laflar, piyasa amigolar\u0131n\u0131n kendi politikalar\u0131n\u0131n geriletici sonu\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcnce vicdanlar\u0131n\u0131 rahatlatmalar\u0131na yard\u0131m eder.<\/p>\n
Daha ele\u015ftirel yakla\u015fan yorumcular, sefaletin \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc ve d\u00fcnya ekonomisi\u00adnin ini\u015f \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015flar\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131nda yoksullar\u0131n sadece ekonomik talihsizliklerle de\u011fil, he\u00adyelanlar, nehirlerin ge\u00e7ti\u011fi ovalar ve k\u0131y\u0131 \u015fehirlerinde seller, depremler ve vb. gibi\u00a0felaketlerle de her g\u00fcn bo\u011fu\u015ftuklar\u0131n\u0131 vurguluyorlar.29<\/sup> Gecekondu i\u015fvereni ro\u00admantizmi, Bat\u0131’da her Big Issue sat\u0131c\u0131s\u0131nda potansiyel bir i\u015fveren g\u00f6rmeye ben\u00adzer. Ger\u00e7ekteyse insanlar sadece ve sadece ya\u015famlar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yorlar. Kay\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131 sekt\u00f6rde \u00e7al\u0131\u015fanlar, ayn\u0131 zamanda k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck ve b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7ekli s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fc a\u011f\u00adlar\u0131na da yakalanm\u0131\u015f durumda. Her zaman sefalet dev k\u00e2rlar da getirir. Yoksullar genelde en fazla \u00f6deyenlerdir – belki de metrekare ba\u015f\u0131na en y\u00fcksek kira, en pa\u00adhal\u0131 su, vb. dolay\u0131s\u0131yla geli\u015fmekte olan d\u00fcnyada baz\u0131 \u00f6nemli servetler gecekon\u00addular\u0131n bu s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcs\u00fcnden ve kay\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131 ekonomilerden gelir. Onlar\u0131n konumlar\u0131na resmiyet kazand\u0131rmaya d\u00f6n\u00fck yukar\u0131dan a\u015fa\u011f\u0131ya giri\u015fimler, genelde bu giri\u015fim\u00adleri yapanlar\u0131n iyi niyetlerine ra\u011fmen onlar\u0131n o zamana kadarki s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 kazan\u0131m- lar\u0131n\u0131 da ortadan kald\u0131rma riski ta\u015f\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin, STK’lara d\u00f6k\u00fclen para, onlar\u0131n sisteme “Yeni Yabanc\u0131 Tanr\u0131lar” olarak giri\u015fini te\u015fvik eder. Neoliberal efsanele\u00adrin ger\u00e7ekle ne \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fc, Aravind Adiga’n\u0131n Hindistan’da bir k\u00f6y \u00e7ocu\u00ad\u011funun ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 olmak i\u00e7in ne yapmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fini anlatan White Tiger [Beyaz Kaplan, Pegasus Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u00c7eviri: M. Beg\u00fcm G\u00fczel] adl\u0131 mizah roman\u0131nda g\u00f6s\u00adterilmi\u015ftir. Ama t\u00fcm zay\u0131fl\u0131klar\u0131na ra\u011fmen, Slumdog Millionaire filmi bile, garip bir dizi \u015fans\u0131n bir varo\u015f itinin ka\u00e7\u0131p ger\u00e7ek a\u015fk\u0131 bulmas\u0131na izin verse de D\u00fcnya Bankas\u0131 ve IMF’in kendini be\u011fenmi\u015f s\u00f6ylemini bir \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde bo\u015fa \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131r.<\/p>\n
K\u0131rsal B\u00f6lgeler<\/h5>\n
Bu durum k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgeler i\u00e7in ne anlama geliyor? E\u015fitsiz de olsa tar\u0131msal ha\u00ads\u0131lat\u0131n artm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n artan n\u00fcfusunu ve kent n\u00fcfusunun beslenmesine olanak vermi\u015ftir. Ama d\u00fcnyan\u0131n 3 milyarl\u0131k k\u0131rsal n\u00fcfusuna refah getirmemesi\u00adnin yan\u0131nda, bu say\u0131 art\u0131k artm\u0131yor ve \u00e7ok ge\u00e7meden mutlak olarak d\u00fc\u015fmeye ba\u015f\u00adlayacak. Bu yoksul \u00fclkelerde k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgelerde \u00e7o\u011funluk yoksul, g\u00fcvencesiz bir ya\u015fam s\u00fcr\u00fcyor, “k\u0131t kanaat idare ediyor.” K\u00fcresel ekonominin k\u00f6y ve \u00e7iftlikle i\u00adli\u015fkisi yak\u0131nla\u015fm\u0131\u015f da olsa insanlar\u0131n a\u00e7l\u0131k \u00e7ekme olas\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 en \u00e7ok k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgeler\u00adde g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. K\u00fcresel tar\u0131m piyasalar\u0131 d\u00fcnyada en \u00e7arp\u0131k olan\u0131d\u0131r; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc ileri d\u00fcnyada son derece verimli ama y\u00fcksek s\u00fcbvansiyonlarla desteklenen \u00fcretim her \u00e7e\u015fit g\u0131da \u00fcreticisine \u00f6denen fiyatlar \u00fczerinde bask\u0131 kurar.<\/p>\n
D\u00fcnya tar\u0131m \u00fcr\u00fcnleri ihracat\u0131n\u0131n yakla\u015f\u0131k y\u00fczde 64’\u00fc sanayi \u00fclkelerinden, ancak y\u00fczde 36’s\u0131 geli\u015fmekte olan d\u00fcnyadan gelir. Geli\u015fmekte olan d\u00fcnyadan ge\u00adlen tar\u0131m \u00fcr\u00fcnleri ihracat\u0131n\u0131n ancak y\u00fczde 22’si ileri \u00fclkelere y\u00f6neliktir – bu ih\u00adracat y\u00f6n de\u011fi\u015ftirmedi\u011fi gibi g\u00fcneyden kuzeye giden mamul mallar\u0131n pay\u0131ndan \u00e7ok farkl\u0131 de\u011fildir.30<\/sup> Daha k\u00f6t\u00fcs\u00fc, bir avu\u00e7 b\u00fcy\u00fck \u015firket tohum ve g\u00fcbre gibi ta\u00adr\u0131m\u0131n ticari \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 ve uluslararas\u0131 ticarete konu g\u0131da maddelerinin sat\u0131n al\u0131n\u00admas\u0131n\u0131 tekelle\u015ftirmi\u015ftir. 30 \u015firketin \u015fimdi k\u00fcresel i\u015flenmi\u015f g\u0131da \u00fcretiminden sorum\u00adlu oldu\u011fu tahmin ediliyor. Unilever, Cargill, Nestle, Wal-Mart ve Tesco hem ta\u00adr\u0131msal girdiler hem de \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131lar \u00fczerinde ola\u011fan\u00fcst\u00fc kontrole sahiptir.31<\/sup><\/p>\n
IMF ve D\u00fcnya Bankas\u0131 gibi kurulu\u015flarla birlikte, bu \u015firketler yoksul \u00fclkeler\u00addeki eski koruma ve s\u00fcbvansiyonlar\u0131n ortadan kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 te\u015fvik ederken, bun\u00adlar\u0131n alandaki \u00e7ift\u00e7ilerin yarar\u0131na olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6ne s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Bu do\u011fru olmakla birlikte vaat edilen refah da gelmemi\u015fti. K\u00f6t\u00fc bir sistemin yerini bir ba\u015fka k\u00f6t\u00fc sis\u00adtem alm\u0131\u015f ve \u00fcreticiler genelde \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131larda a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 y\u00f6nde ve girdilerde (\u00f6rne\u011fin, ener\u00adji) yukar\u0131 y\u00f6nde dalgalanma e\u011filimleri g\u00f6steren sert fiyat oynamalar\u0131yla ba\u015f etmeleri i\u00e7in kendi hallerine b\u0131rak\u0131lm\u0131\u015flard\u0131.32<\/sup> 2008 World Development Re- port [D\u00fcnya Kalk\u0131nma Raporu, 2008], tar\u0131mda vaat edilen d\u00fczelmenin ger\u00e7ekle\u00admemi\u015f oldu\u011funu kabul ediyordu:<\/p>\n
1980’lerde yeniden yap\u0131lanma, \u00e7ift\u00e7ilere arazi, kredi, sigorta, girdi ve koope\u00adratif \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmesine eri\u015fim imk\u00e2n\u0131 sunan geli\u015fmi\u015f kamu kurulu\u015flar\u0131 sistemini y\u0131k\u00adt\u0131. Burada umulan, devletin bu alanlardan el \u00e7ekmesinin bu i\u015flevleri devralacak \u00f6zel oyuncular i\u00e7in piyasay\u0131 serbest hale getirmesiydi. \u00c7o\u011fu kez bu olmad\u0131. Ba\u00adz\u0131 yerlerde, devletin geri \u00e7ekilmesi en fazla \u00f6zel giri\u015fi s\u0131n\u0131rlayan denemelere ben\u00adziyordu. Ba\u015fka yerlerdeyse, \u00f6zel sekt\u00f6r -temelde ticari \u00e7ift\u00e7ilere hizmet ederken, k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00e7iftlik sahiplerini piyasan\u0131n yayg\u0131n ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131klar\u0131na, y\u00fcksek i\u015flem maliye\u00adti ve risklerine ve hizmet bo\u015fluklar\u0131na a\u00e7\u0131k b\u0131rakarak – ancak yava\u015f ve k\u0131smi bir geli\u015fme g\u00f6stermi\u015fti. Tamamlanmam\u0131\u015f piyasalar ve kurumsal bo\u015fluklar, k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00e7iftlik sahipleri i\u00e7in rekabet g\u00fc\u00e7lerini ve bir\u00e7ok durumda dayanmalar\u0131n\u0131 tehdit e\u00adden b\u00fcy\u00fcmenin durmas\u0131 ve azalan refah \u00fczerine muazzam bir maliyet y\u00fckler.33<\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n
Ama al\u0131nt\u0131y\u0131 dikkatle okumal\u0131y\u0131z; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ne kadar ciddi ol\u00addu\u011funu itiraf ederken, bunun piyasalar\u0131n di\u011ferleri kadar “saf” ve “tamamlanm\u0131\u015f” olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan kaynakland\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6ne s\u00fcr\u00fcyor. Ne zaman piyasan\u0131n ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ko\u00adnu edilse, bildik bahane budur. Ger\u00e7ekteyse, k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgelerde hi\u00e7 de daha az ol\u00admayan \u00e7arp\u0131k geli\u015fme bir\u00e7ok kasaba ve \u015fehirde \u00e7arp\u0131k geli\u015fme s\u00fcre\u00e7lerine paralel gider. Geli\u015fmekte olan \u00fclkelerden yap\u0131lan g\u0131da \u00fcr\u00fcnleri ihracat\u0131n\u0131n t\u00fcm g\u0131da \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00adleri ihracat\u0131 i\u00e7indeki pay\u0131n\u0131n azalmas\u0131, zengin \u00fclkelerdeki s\u00fcbvansiyonlar\u0131n ve fa\u00adkir \u00fclkelerdeki durgun piyasalar\u0131n \u00e7arp\u0131kl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 yans\u0131t\u0131r.<\/p>\n
D\u00fcnyan\u0131n bir\u00e7ok y\u00f6resinde, en yoksul k\u00f6yl\u00fcler h\u00e2l\u00e2 k\u00f6t\u00fc hasad\u0131n ini\u015f ve \u00e7\u0131\u00adk\u0131\u015flar\u0131na tabi olmakla birlikte, ge\u00e7imlerini s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmek i\u00e7in gereken g\u0131dan\u0131n \u00e7o\u00ad\u011funlu\u011funu \u00fcretirler. Ama g\u00f6\u00e7menlerin memleketleri ve yurtd\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki \u015fehirlere para g\u00f6ndermeleri gibi, k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgelerdeki tar\u0131m d\u0131\u015f\u0131 i\u015flere (daha iyisi k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck i\u015f\u00adletmeler, daha k\u00f6t\u00fcs\u00fc g\u00fcndelik\u00e7ilik) giderek ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 hale gelmeye de ba\u015flam\u0131\u015f\u00adlard\u0131r. Afrika ve ba\u015fka yerlerdeki mikro \u00f6l\u00e7ekli ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar, \u015fimdi yoksullar\u0131n k\u0131rsal gelirlerinin y\u00fczde 50 kadar\u0131n\u0131n tar\u0131m d\u0131\u015f\u0131 kaynaklardan geldi\u011fini g\u00f6sterir. 34<\/sup> Bunun pe\u015finden gelen tabaka, yerel ve ulusal pazarlara arz edilen sat\u0131lacak ar\u00adt\u0131ya sahip olanlard\u0131r. Ama b\u00fcy\u00fck aile \u00e7iftliklerini saymazsak, burada da \u00e7ift\u00e7ilik tar\u0131m d\u0131\u015f\u0131 k\u0131rsal \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma bi\u00e7imleriyle bir araya gelmek zorundad\u0131r.<\/p>\n
K\u00fcresel pazarlarla ili\u015fki kuran, b\u00fcy\u00fck \u015firket ve s\u00fcpermarketlere sat\u0131\u015f yapan b\u00fcy\u00fck ticari \u00e7iftlikler ve plantasyonlar tar\u0131m i\u015f\u00e7ilerinin eme\u011fine dayal\u0131d\u0131rlar ve da\u00adha iyi durumdad\u0131rlar. Ama genelde kalite, standardizasyon ve zaman\u0131nda arz gi\u00adbi yapmac\u0131k talepler \u00f6ne s\u00fcren Bat\u0131l\u0131 al\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131n keyfine kalm\u0131\u015f s\u00f6zle\u015fmeli i\u015flere ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131d\u0131rlar. Ayr\u0131ca, D\u00fcnya Bankas\u0131 ve di\u011ferleri ba\u015fka yol olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6ne s\u00fcr- seler de yoksul d\u00fcnyan\u0131n k\u0131rsal ekonomisine katk\u0131lar\u0131 h\u00e2l\u00e2 s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131d\u0131r. Bir an bile d\u00fc\u00ad\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcp ta\u015f\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda, bunun \u00e7\u0131kar yol olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcr\u00fcz. B\u00fcy\u00fck birimler daha \u00e7ok sermaye ve makine ile nispeten daha az emek kullanma e\u011filimindedir. Dola\u00ady\u0131s\u0131yla burada yanda\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n hayallerini s\u00fcsleyen bir b\u00fcy\u00fcme bile olsa, gene de ge\u00ad\u00e7imleri bask\u0131 alt\u0131nda tehlikeye d\u00fc\u015fen k\u0131r yoksullar\u0131 ve k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00e7iftlik sahipleri kitlesinin emilmesini sa\u011flamaz. Daha \u00e7ok insan\u0131 tar\u0131m d\u0131\u015f\u0131 k\u0131rsal \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmaya ve g\u00f6\u00e7e zorlayarak topraktan koparmaya devam edecek olan da bu ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131kt\u0131r.<\/p>\n
\u015eehirlerde Toplumsal \u00d6rg\u00fctlenme<\/h5>\n
Her g\u00fcn baz\u0131 insanlar \u015fehir hayat\u0131na yenik d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcyor. Hastal\u0131k, kaza, intihar ve \u015fiddetten kaynaklanan \u00f6l\u00fcmler \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck d\u00fczeylerde g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyor. Y\u0131lda be\u015f mil\u00adyon ki\u015fi suyun neden oldu\u011fu hastal\u0131klardan, 3 milyonu ishalden \u00f6l\u00fcyor. [35] A\u00adma \u00e7ok daha b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclerde \u00e7ok daha fazla say\u0131da insan\u0131n inan\u0131lmaz esneklik g\u00f6sterip hayatta kald\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyor. Bunun ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmesi k\u0131smen devletler, yerel y\u00f6netimler, STK’lar, i\u015fverenlerin, vb. yaratt\u0131klar\u0131 yap\u0131larla a\u00e7\u0131klan\u0131yor. Ama \u00f6ne s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz gibi, bunlar genelde zay\u0131f ve belirsiz. Hayatta kalma ve esnekli\u011fin ki\u00admi zaman piyasan\u0131n d\u00fcmen suyunda, kimi zaman kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda insanlar\u0131n kendi yap\u00adt\u0131klar\u0131yla daha \u00e7ok ilgisi var.<\/p>\n
\u015eehirler, egemen s\u0131n\u0131flar taraf\u0131ndan her zaman barut f\u0131\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. 1960’larda, kentlerde ilk huzursuzluklar\u0131 g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcnde bulunduran Barbara Ward, “d\u00fcnyada en az\u0131ndan sert s\u0131n\u0131f \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 \u00f6rneklerini yaratacak kadar \u00e7ok barut f\u0131\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 var” diye yazm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.36<\/sup> Bir ku\u015fak sonra pek \u00e7ok yorumcu bu arg\u00fcmanlar\u0131 k\u00f6- t\u00fcledi. Ama baz\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n umdu\u011fu ya da y\u00f6neticilerin korktu\u011fu kadar \u00e7ok kentsel s\u0131\u00adn\u0131f m\u00fccadelesi olmam\u0131\u015fsa bile gene de bunun eksikli\u011fi hissedilmemi\u015ftir. 1960’lardan beri, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n bir\u00e7ok yoksul y\u00f6resinde \u015fehirler b\u00fcy\u00fcrken, merkezi yer tutan k\u0131rsal \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar ve gerilla sava\u015flar\u0131, bir\u00e7o\u011fu Latin Amerika, Asya ve Af\u00adrika’da demokratik geli\u015fmede itici g\u00fc\u00e7 olu\u015fturan temel bir yo\u011fun kent merkezli isyanlara yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. 2011’de bu gibi isyanlar donmu\u015f san\u0131lan Ortado\u011fu’daki devletleri silip s\u00fcp\u00fcrd\u00fc. Ger\u00e7ekte, eski d\u00fczenin zay\u0131fl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n temelinde yatan bu\u00adrada tart\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z t\u00fcrden toplumsal de\u011fi\u015fimlerdir.37<\/sup><\/p>\n
Bu gibi \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar, -gerek g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc sendikalar olsun, gerekse sol siyasal parti\u00adler olsun- resmi hareketlere genelde bekledikleri \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde temel olu\u015fturmam\u0131\u015flar\u00add\u0131r. Burada dikkate almam\u0131z gereken belirgin bir fakt\u00f6r devletin ve \u00f6zel sekt\u00f6r\u00fcn bask\u0131s\u0131d\u0131r. Demokratikle\u015fme genelde s\u0131\u011f olmu\u015ftur. \u00d6zel sekt\u00f6r\u00fcn bask\u0131s\u0131, genel\u00adde devletin olup biteni bir kenardan sessizce izlemesiyle olur. Bu, ba\u015fkald\u0131ranla- r\u0131 savunmas\u0131z b\u0131rakt\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi -durum istikrarl\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc s\u00fcrece- direni\u015fi ku\u015fatmaya ya da yeralt\u0131na itmeye yard\u0131m eden bir korku salar.<\/p>\n
Ama \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar boy g\u00f6sterdi\u011finde, bunlar\u0131n halk\u0131 k\u00fcresel kapitalizme g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc meydan okumaya seferber etmeye haz\u0131r siyasal liderlerce y\u00f6netilmeyi\u015fi, potansi\u00adyellerinin bo\u015fa gitmesine ya da farkl\u0131 y\u00f6nlere savrulmalar\u0131na imk\u00e2n sa\u011flar. Sen\u00addikalar, siyasal partiler ve geni\u015f toplumsal hareketler ya siyasal olarak sistem taraf\u0131ndan ele ge\u00e7irilirler ya da yozla\u015f\u0131rlar. Buna getirilen a\u00e7\u0131klama k\u0131smen \u00f6znel fakt\u00f6rlerle – insanlar\u0131n de\u011fi\u015fimin y\u00f6n\u00fc ve imk\u00e2nlar\u0131 konusunda fikirleri- ilgilidir. 38<\/sup> 1950’lerden 1980’lere kadar K\u00fcresel G\u00fcney’de siyaset, \u00e7e\u015fitli milliyet\u00e7ilikle\u00adrin etkile\u015fimini ve ABD ile SSCB aras\u0131ndaki So\u011fuk Sava\u015f \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131 yans\u0131t\u00adm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. 1991’de Sovyetler Birli\u011fi’nin \u00e7\u00f6k\u00fc\u015f\u00fc, piyasa ve neoliberalizm y\u00f6n\u00fcndeki hamleyi ve onunla birlikte k\u00fcresel kapitalizmle b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015fmekten ba\u015fka alternatif olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 duygusunu g\u00fc\u00e7lendirmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n
Bu h\u00e2l\u00e2 bir politika olarak daha caziptir \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc \u00fclkelerin i\u00e7inde e\u015fitsizli\u011fin art\u00admas\u0131na ve “reformcu” liderlerin do\u011frudan kazananlar olarak kendi rollerini me\u015f\u00adrula\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131na izin verdi\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyor. G\u00fcney Afrika \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 bir \u00f6rnek. Siyahlar\u0131n ekonomik bak\u0131mdan g\u00fc\u00e7lenmesinin izlenecek yol oldu\u011fu g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyordu. 2005-8’de G\u00fcney Afrika’n\u0131n Devlet Ba\u015fkan\u0131 Yard\u0131mc\u0131s\u0131 Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka’n\u0131n “si\u00adyahlar zengin pislikler olmaktan utanmamal\u0131” dedi\u011fi s\u00f6ylenmi\u015fti.39<\/sup> G\u00fcney Afri\u00adka Ulusal Maden \u0130\u015f\u00e7ileri Sendikas\u0131’n\u0131n kurucular\u0131 aras\u0131nda yer alan, Afrika Ulusal Kongresi’nin genel sekreterli\u011fine getirilmi\u015f, apartheid’i sona erdirecek m\u00fczake\u00adre heyetinin ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 yapm\u0131\u015f olan Cyril Ramaphosa, i\u015fte bu ruhla daha sonra G\u00fcney Afrika i\u015f d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131n yan\u0131nda, McDonald’s ve Coca-Cola gibi uluslarara\u00ads\u0131 sermayeyle ili\u015fkide multimilyoner bir i\u015fadam\u0131na d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n
Ama baz\u0131lar\u0131 resmi \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmenin geli\u015fmeyi\u015finin bu k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131n, belki de en b\u00fcy\u00fck k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131n s\u0131n\u0131f olu\u015fumunun temelinde yatan daha “nesnel” unsurlarla a\u00e7\u0131k\u00adland\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 da \u00f6ne s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Burada as\u0131l mesele, var olan bu gibi yap\u0131sal fakt\u00f6rle\u00adrin de\u011fi\u015fimin g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc yads\u0131yan kal\u0131c\u0131 bir ko\u015fulu mu yans\u0131tt\u0131klar\u0131, yoksa zamanla ve ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 eylemlerle \u00fcstesinden gelinebilecek daha ge\u00e7ici bir unsuru mu yans\u0131t\u00adt\u0131klar\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n
\u015eekil 1, \u015fehirlerdeki siyasal eylemlerle ilgili basit ve genelde kullan\u0131lan d\u00fc\u00ad\u015f\u00fcnce tarz\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterir. Daha resmi kat\u0131l\u0131m ve protesto t\u00fcrlerinin yan\u0131nda, daha res\u00admi olmayan kimi bireysel kimi kolektif bir dizi t\u00fcr\u00fcn bulundu\u011funu g\u00f6r\u00fcr\u00fcz. Ortada d\u00f6rt bir taraf\u0131n yararland\u0131\u011f\u0131 eylemlerle birlikte, bir eylem t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn di\u011feri\u00adni besleme imk\u00e2n\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermek i\u00e7in bilin\u00e7li olarak kesik \u00e7izgiler kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n
\"haynes4\"<\/a><\/p>\n
K\u00f6t\u00fcmserler, \u015fehirde ya\u015famak ve \u00e7al\u0131\u015fman\u0131n insanlar\u0131 bir araya getirip daya\u00adn\u0131\u015fman\u0131n baz\u0131 temellerini yaratmakla birlikte, kent hayat\u0131n\u0131n u\u00e7lar\u0131nda her g\u00fcn hayatta kalma m\u00fccadelesi vermenin insanlar\u0131 birbirine d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrerek b\u00f6l\u00fcp zay\u0131flat\u00adt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 vurguluyorlar.<\/p>\n
\u015eehirler \u00e7ok say\u0131da insan\u0131n ya\u015fam\u0131n en temel unsurlar\u0131 i\u00e7in rekabet ettikleri merkezler haline gelmi\u015ftir: \u0130\u015f bulmak i\u00e7in giri\u015filen muazzam rekabeti saymaz\u00adsak, i\u015fyerine uzak olmayan uygun bir kira kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda bir oda ya da tahliye edil\u00adme korkusu olmadan \u00fczerine bir bar\u0131nak kondurulabilecek bo\u015f bir arsa; okullarda bo\u015f kontenjan; sa\u011fl\u0131k sorunlar\u0131 ya da yaralanmalar i\u00e7in t\u0131bbi tedavi ya da hasta\u00adnede bir yatak; temiz i\u00e7me suyuna eri\u015febilme; otob\u00fcs ya da trende yer bulabilme ve i\u015fporta tezg\u00e2h\u0131 a\u00e7mak i\u00e7in kald\u0131r\u0131mlarda ya da meydanlarda yer bulabilme.40 <\/sup>Ne var ki, daha iyimser de\u011ferlendirmeler hayat\u0131 bu kadar olumsuz g\u00f6rmez. Hayatta kalmak i\u00e7in insanlar\u0131n kendi hayatlar\u0131 \u00fczerinde bir par\u00e7a fiili kontrol\u00fc ol\u00admas\u0131 gerekir. Bunun i\u00e7in, g\u00fcndelik hayat kavgas\u0131nda, dinledi\u011fimiz takdirde John Holloway’in “ba\u015fkald\u0131r\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7\u0131\u011fl\u0131\u011f\u0131”n\u0131 i\u015fitebiliriz.41<\/sup> Bu sava\u015f\u0131m ve direni\u015f, b\u00fcy\u00fck\u00a0\u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde \u015eekil 1’in \u00fcst sa\u011f\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Ama “nerede g\u00fc\u00e7 varsa orada direni\u015f de var” demek \u00e7ok basite indirgenmi\u015f bir yakla\u015f\u0131md\u0131r. Kendini \u00e7\u0131lg\u0131n gibi i\u00e7kiye ver\u00admek ya da kar\u0131n\u0131 veya \u00e7ocu\u011funu veya kom\u015funu d\u00f6verek kendisini iyi hissetmek hayatta kalma mekanizmalar\u0131 da olsalar bunlar te\u015fvik edilecek \u015feyler de\u011fildir.42 <\/sup>Ka\u00e7ak su kullanmak ya da zenginlerin hatt\u0131ndan ka\u00e7ak elektrik kullanmak daha iyi ama yeterli hizmetlerin sa\u011flanmas\u0131nda \u0131srarl\u0131 olacak \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmeler kadar iyi de\u011fildir. Mesele d\u00fcnyan\u0131n pek \u00e7ok y\u00f6resinde bu temel sava\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131n do\u011fas\u0131 ve bo\u00adyutlar\u0131 hakk\u0131nda \u00e7ok az \u015fey bilmemizdir. Mevcut tart\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc i\u00adleri Bat\u0131 \u00fclkelerindeki toplumsal hareketlere dayal\u0131d\u0131r. Daha yoksul \u00fclkelerde en \u00e7ok tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lan \u00f6rnekler Latin Amerika’dan al\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ama b\u0131rakal\u0131m di\u011fer yerle\u00adri, bunlar\u0131n bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak k\u0131tay\u0131 ne \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde temsil eden tipik hareketler oldu\u011fu her zaman net de\u011fildir.<\/p>\n
Baz\u0131 de\u011ferlendirmeler, hem resmi hem resmi olmayan kolektif eylem f\u0131rsat\u00adlar\u0131n\u0131n azalmakta oldu\u011funu varsay\u0131yor. Baz\u0131 alanlarda, kentlerde olumsuz g\u00fc\u00e7ler devletin geri \u00e7ekilmesinin ya da ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 bo\u015fluklardan istifade e\u00adderken k\u00f6t\u00fcle\u015fme art\u0131yor olabilir. Marjinalli\u011fi reddeden al\u0131nt\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 verdi\u011fimiz Ja- nice Perlman, Latin Amerika’n\u0131n baz\u0131 \u015fehirlerinin daha pozitif direni\u015f bi\u00e7imlerini ortadan kald\u0131racak \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde \u00e7etelerin \u015fiddetine yuvarlanm\u0131\u015f olduklar\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6ne s\u00fcr\u00adm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Bir zamanlar a\u015fa\u011f\u0131dakilerin daha canl\u0131 bir direni\u015finin oldu\u011fu Rio’da, \u015fim\u00addi sadece “\u00e7etelerin g\u00f6z\u00fcne batacak herhangi bir inisiyatif almaktan ya da kolektif eylemden \u00e7ekinen bir avu\u00e7 cesareti k\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f insan”\u0131n oldu\u011funu \u00f6ne s\u00fcrer. Bu yol\u00adla “marjinallik efsane olmaktan \u00e7\u0131k\u0131p ger\u00e7e\u011fe d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.”43<\/sup><\/p>\n
Bu do\u011fan bo\u015flu\u011fu her zaman ba\u015fka g\u00fc\u00e7lerin doldurdu\u011fu arg\u00fcman\u0131na g\u00f6t\u00fc\u00adr\u00fcr bizi. E\u011fer alternatif sunacak kimse yoksa a\u00e7\u0131klama arayanlar daha az pozitif y\u00f6nlere g\u00f6zlerini \u00e7evireceklerdir. Okurlar son on y\u0131llarda d\u00fcnyan\u0131n farkl\u0131 y\u00f6rele\u00adrinde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan vah\u015fi ve canice etnik \u00e7at\u0131\u015fma \u00f6rneklerini rahatl\u0131kla ak\u0131llar\u0131na getirebilirler. Bunlar b\u00f6l ve y\u00f6net siyasetiyle g\u00fcnah ke\u00e7isi aramaktan beslenirler. Kimi zaman hedefler “piyasan\u0131n egemen az\u0131nl\u0131klar\u0131” denilenlerdir – di\u011ferlerinden daha b\u00fcy\u00fck servetlere ve g\u00fcce sahip konumdaki etnik gruplar. Asya’n\u0131n baz\u0131 yer\u00adlerinde \u00c7in as\u0131ll\u0131lar, Afrika’n\u0131n baz\u0131 yerlerinde de Hint as\u0131ll\u0131lar klasik \u00f6rneklerdir. Ama bir grup bir g\u00f6\u00e7men grubu ya da dini bir grup bir ba\u015fka dini grubu d\u00fc\u015fman olarak g\u00f6rmeye ba\u015flarken, bu t\u00fcr \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar kent kitlelerinin farkl\u0131 gruplar\u0131 ara\u00ads\u0131ndaki \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 da i\u00e7ine alabilir.<\/p>\n
Ama bu s\u00f6z konusu \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz olduklar\u0131 anlam\u0131na gelmiyor. Bunlar e\u011filim olarak umutsuzluk ve siyasal bo\u015fluklardan beslenirler. Bunlar oto\u00adritelerin g\u00f6z yumdu\u011fu ya da hatta destekledi\u011fi demagoglar taraf\u0131ndan kullan\u0131l\u0131r\u00adlar. Bu nedenle, piyasa dostu politikalar\u0131n ortal\u0131\u011f\u0131 mahvetmesine izin verilirse, s\u00f6z konusu \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar i\u00e7in ko\u015fullar daha da olgunla\u015f\u0131r. 1990’lardaki krizlerden birinde, bildi\u011fimiz gibi D\u00fcnya Bankas\u0131 ekonomik krizi \u00e7\u00f6zmek i\u00e7in daha \u00e7ok in\u00adsan\u0131 sefalete itmenin, sonradan bir\u00e7ok \u00fclkede g\u00f6r\u00fclece\u011fi gibi etnik ve toplumsal \u015fiddet riski do\u011furaca\u011f\u0131 konusunda uyar\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Ancak ileri d\u00fcnyada, g\u00fcnah ke\u00e7i\u00adsi arama daha yap\u0131c\u0131 siyasi muhalefet ve kitlesel seferberlik bi\u00e7imlerinin geli\u015fti\u00adrilmesiyle s\u0131n\u0131rland\u0131r\u0131labilir.<\/p>\n
Dine sar\u0131lma yayg\u0131nd\u0131r – baz\u0131 \u00f6rneklerde \u0130slam, baz\u0131lar\u0131nda Protestanl\u0131k, ba\u015f\u00adka yerlerde belki daha b\u00f6lgesel ve yerel dinler. Mike Davis, dinin hem kentlerde\u00adki k\u00f6t\u00fcle\u015fmeden hem de sol bir alternatif geli\u015ftirmekteki ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131ktan b\u00fcy\u00fck yarar sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6ne s\u00fcrer. Bu, k\u0131smen dinlerin teselli vermesi kadar, piyasalar ve di\u011fer siyasal g\u00fc\u00e7lerin ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131z oldu\u011fu sahada, dini g\u00fc\u00e7lerin bir \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde insanlar\u0131n yard\u0131m\u0131na ko\u015fmas\u0131 nedeniyledir.44<\/sup> Din toplumsal b\u00f6l\u00fcnme tan\u0131mad\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan muha\u00adlefete k\u0131smen \u00e7ekici gelir. Ama sonsuza kadar toplumsal b\u00f6l\u00fcnmelerin \u00fcst\u00fcn\u00fc \u00f6r\u00adtemez. M\u0131s\u0131r’da \u0130slamc\u0131l\u0131k ve muhalefetle ilgili yaz\u0131s\u0131nda, Sameh Naguib \u0130slam’\u0131 a\u015fan bir arg\u00fcman ortaya koyar. Hangi inanca sahip olursa olsun, insan\u0131n \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fc Allah’ta bulmas\u0131 kitlesel pop\u00fclist hareketlerin hem g\u00fcc\u00fc hem zaaf\u0131d\u0131r. “Ancak li\u00adderlik farkl\u0131 d\u00fcrt\u00fcleri dengeleyip k\u0131r\u0131lgan birli\u011fi da\u011f\u0131tabilecek somut eylemler\u00adden ka\u00e7\u0131nabilece\u011fi s\u00fcrece, bu bir g\u00fc\u00e7 olarak hareket eder.”45<\/sup><\/p>\n
\u0130flah olmaz k\u00f6t\u00fcmserler insana yolunu kaybettiren g\u00fc\u00e7lerin her \u015feye h\u00e2kim oldu\u011funu \u00f6ne s\u00fcr\u00fcyorlar. Il\u0131ml\u0131 iyimserler, demokrasi ve de\u011fi\u015fim yanl\u0131s\u0131 daha ge\u00adni\u015f toplumsal hareketler lehine “i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131na elveda” demi\u015flerdir. Il\u0131ml\u0131 iyimser\u00adler i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n s\u00fcren rol\u00fcn\u00fc ve \u00f6rg\u00fctl\u00fc ifadelerini de\u011fi\u015fimin daha geni\u015f kuvvetlerinin yan\u0131nda ba\u015fat kuvvet de\u011fil, “e\u015fit taraf” olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcyorlar. Temelde iyimserler ise toplumsal de\u011fi\u015fimin her zaman geni\u015f hareketleri gerektirdi\u011fini ka\u00adbul etmekle birlikte, daha k\u00f6kten de\u011fi\u015fim i\u00e7in \u00f6rg\u00fctl\u00fc i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n merkezi yere sahip oldu\u011funda \u0131srar etmeyi s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcrler. Bu tart\u0131\u015fma b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde eski on y\u0131l\u00adlara, hatta 19. Y\u00fczy\u0131la kadar geri gider. De\u011fi\u015fim e\u011filimi g\u00fc\u00e7ler dengesinden kay\u00adnaklan\u0131r; son d\u00f6nemde solda bolca rastlad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z iyimserleri kara kara d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeye iten de budur.46<\/sup><\/p>\n
Bu arg\u00fcmanlar\u0131 aktarmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131rken, \u00f6nemli olan kapitalist kentsel b\u00fcy\u00fc\u00admenin her zaman \u00fcstesinden gelinmesi zaman alan toplumsal bir kaosu belli \u00f6l\u00ad\u00e7\u00fclerde yaratm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011funu hat\u0131rlamakt\u0131r. Yoksul \u00fclkelerdeki \u00f6rg\u00fctl\u00fc eme\u011fin baz\u0131 sorunlar\u0131na lanet okuyan Ronaldo Munck, ge\u00e7mi\u015fte “sanayile\u015fme, kentle\u015fme ve sendikala\u015fman\u0131n at ba\u015f\u0131 gitti\u011fi”ni \u00f6ne s\u00fcrer.47<\/sup> Oysa durum hi\u00e7 de \u00f6yle de\u011fil. K\u00f6\u00adt\u00fc tarih g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn k\u00f6t\u00fc siyasetine yol a\u00e7abilir. 27 milyonluk n\u00fcfusuyla, Britan\u00adya’da 1851’de y\u00fczde 50 kentle\u015fme oran\u0131na ra\u011fmen, sadece 100.000 sendikal\u0131 var\u00add\u0131 ve bu \u00f6rg\u00fctler de ya\u015famayacakt\u0131. 1900’de, 41 milyonluk n\u00fcfusun y\u00fczde 80’i kentlerde ya\u015f\u0131yorken, 1,2-1,5 milyon (tahminler farkl\u0131 rakamlar veriyor) sendi\u00adkal\u0131 i\u015f\u00e7i say\u0131s\u0131 (toplam i\u015fg\u00fcc\u00fc i\u00e7inde) +\/- y\u00fczde 10’luk bir sendikal yo\u011funluk de\u00admekti. Yine de bu noktada \u0130ngiliz i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 sendikal a\u00e7\u0131dan d\u00fcnyan\u0131n en \u00f6rg\u00fctl\u00fcleri aras\u0131nda say\u0131l\u0131yordu. Bu nedenle, sanayile\u015fme, kentle\u015fme ve sendika\u00adla\u015fma aras\u0131nda \u00f6yle basit bir ili\u015fki yoktur.48<\/sup> Kiminin “eme\u011fin ileri y\u00fcr\u00fcy\u00fc\u015f\u00fc” de\u00addi\u011fi \u015fey, ani at\u0131l\u0131mlar ve sonra gerilemelerle birlikte her zaman e\u015fitsiz olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n
Beverly Silver, Forces of Labor adl\u0131 kitab\u0131nda, “Emek hareketinin 20. Y\u00fcz\u00ady\u0131l sonundaki krizi ge\u00e7icidir ve muhtemelen olu\u015fum halindeki yeni i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131\u00adn\u0131n g\u00fc\u00e7lenmesiyle \u00fcstesinden gelinecektir” der.49<\/sup> Bu kitap, k\u0131smen son analizlerde \u00e7ok s\u0131k rastlad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z k\u00f6t\u00fcmserlik modas\u0131na meydan okudu\u011fundan muhtemelen hak etti\u011fi ilgiyi \u00e7ekmemi\u015ftir. Silver, k\u00fcresel yeniden yap\u0131lanman\u0131n farkl\u0131 \u00fclkeler\u00adde i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n\u0131 yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ya da yeniden yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6ne s\u00fcrer. \u00d6rnek olarak, La\u00adtin Amerika, G\u00fcney Kore ve G\u00fcney Afrika’daki otomobil i\u015f\u00e7ilerinin rol\u00fcnde \u00f6zel olarak yo\u011funla\u015f\u0131rken, bunlar\u0131n nas\u0131l militan fabrika i\u015f\u00e7ilerinin \u00e7ekirdek gruplar\u0131\u00adna d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne g\u00f6z atar ve bunun \u00c7in’de bile daha belirgin bir bi\u00e7imde ortaya \u00e7\u0131\u00adkaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 tahmin eder. Yakla\u015f\u0131k on y\u0131l sonra, 2010’da \u00c7in’deki otomobil fabrikalar\u0131nda b\u00fcy\u00fck grevler g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcrken, anl\u0131k uzla\u015fmazl\u0131klar\u0131n sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 ne olur\u00adsa olsun, bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f ho\u015f bir tahminmi\u015f gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcyor.<\/p>\n
Silver, yeniden yap\u0131lanman\u0131n zengin \u00fclkeler gibi yoksul \u00fclkelerde de beyaz yakal\u0131 i\u015f\u00e7iler ve \u00f6\u011fretmenler gibi gruplar d\u00e2hil, i\u015fg\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fcn militanla\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131n ye\u00adni merkezlerini yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 da \u00f6ne s\u00fcrer. Bu, onun sol yorumcular\u0131n \u00e7ok s\u0131k ileri d\u00fcnyadaki yenilgiye ili\u015fkin kendi g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerini yoksul \u00fclke halklar\u0131na yans\u0131tt\u0131kla\u00adr\u0131n\u0131 ileri s\u00fcrerek, baz\u0131 olumsuz irdelemeleri tamamen ters kullanmas\u0131na imk\u00e2n ta\u00adn\u0131r. Asl\u0131nda, t\u00fcm yerk\u00fcrede fabrikan\u0131n merkezili\u011fi h\u00e2l\u00e2 bellidir ve gelecek genelde san\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan daha \u00fcmit vericidir. Bu arg\u00fcmanda, Paul Mason’\u0131n 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l Manc- hester’\u0131ndan 21. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015f\u0131ndaki \u00c7in’e kadar, bizi etkileyen ge\u00e7mi\u015fin ve g\u00fcn\u00fc\u00adm\u00fcz\u00fcn sava\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131n\u0131n anlam\u0131n\u0131 birlikte ele ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 “i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n nas\u0131l k\u00fcreselle\u015fti\u011fi”ni \u00f6ne s\u00fcren irdelemesinde daha betimleyici ama gene de daha g\u00fc\u00e7\u00adl\u00fc bir bi\u00e7imde ortaya konulmu\u015ftur.50<\/sup><\/p>\n
Ne yaz\u0131k ki, ileri \u00fclkeler d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmal\u0131 sendikala\u015fma d\u00fczeyleriyle ilgili yeterli verileri zor buluruz. Ama eri\u015filebilenlerin bir k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131 kullanan yeni bir ara\u015ft\u0131rmaya g\u00f6re, “s\u0131n\u0131f temel seferber edici kuvvet olarak kal\u0131yor.”51<\/sup> ama s\u0131\u00adn\u0131f sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n da b\u00f6yle oldu\u011fu ortaya \u00e7\u0131kacakt\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin, IMF’nin kemer s\u0131k\u00adma politikalar\u0131n\u0131n egemen oldu\u011fu yerlerde, bu sadece kay\u0131tl\u0131 ekonomiyi de\u011fil,<\/p>\n
ama i\u015f\u00e7i \u00f6rg\u00fctlerini de zay\u0131flatm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. IMF’le anla\u015fma yapan \u00fclkelerdeki i\u015f\u00e7ilerin kemer s\u0131kma programlar\u0131ndan sonra sendikala\u015fma olas\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n y\u00fczde 60 azald\u0131\u011f\u0131 bulunmu\u015ftur.52<\/sup> Bu, 1980’ler ve 1990’larda ayn\u0131 politikalar\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde kulla\u00adn\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 Latin Amerika’da \u00f6zellikle \u00f6nem kazanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Demek ki \u015fimdiye kadar “s\u0131\u00adn\u0131f\u0131n \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc”nde g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz \u015fey, inisiyatifin bir dereceye kadar \u00fcsttekilerce ele ge\u00e7irildi\u011fi s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n devam\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n
Ama e\u011fer toplumsal denge kay\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131 sekt\u00f6rdeki kitlelerin lehineyse, o zaman bu \u00f6rg\u00fctl\u00fc i\u015f\u00e7ilerin toplumsal ve siyasal de\u011fi\u015fimdeki rol\u00fcn\u00fc \u00f6ne s\u00fcren arg\u00fcman\u0131 \u00e7\u00fcr\u00fctm\u00fcyor mu? Bir\u00e7o\u011funa g\u00f6re, Sahraalt\u0131 Afrika bu arg\u00fcman\u0131n u\u00e7 bir \u00f6rne\u011fini sunuyor. Zaten zay\u0131f olan kay\u0131tl\u0131 sekt\u00f6r ve \u00f6rg\u00fctl\u00fc i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n, ekonomik de\u011fi\u00ad\u015fim ile IMF ve D\u00fcnya Bankas\u0131’n\u0131n politikalar\u0131ndan en a\u011f\u0131r darbe ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fclen yer buras\u0131d\u0131r. Kent n\u00fcfuslar\u0131 kat kat \u00e7o\u011falsa bile, art arda \u00fclkelerdeki “i\u015fsizlik dalgas\u0131”ndan \u00e7ok az ku\u015fku duyulabilir. Ama Sahraalt\u0131 Afrika, kay\u0131tl\u0131 ve kay\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131 sekt\u00f6rler aras\u0131 ayr\u0131l\u0131ktan \u00e7ok ili\u015fkilerin \u00f6nemli oldu\u011fu \u015fehirlerdeki ciddi toplum\u00adsal huzursuzluklar\u0131n da yata\u011f\u0131yd\u0131.<\/p>\n
Bunu a\u00e7\u0131klamak i\u00e7in yeniden yap\u0131land\u0131rman\u0131n \u00fclkeler i\u00e7inde ve aras\u0131nda her zaman e\u015fitsiz oldu\u011funu kabul etmek gerekir. Kaybedilen kay\u0131tl\u0131 i\u015fler \u00f6nemlidir, ama kalan ve yarat\u0131lan yeni i\u015fler de \u00f6yledir. “Kay\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131” sekt\u00f6rde her zaman fark\u00adl\u0131 derecelerde kay\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131l\u0131k vard\u0131r. Sanki kar\u015f\u0131t kutuplarm\u0131\u015f gibi kay\u0131tl\u0131 ve kay\u0131td\u0131- \u015f\u0131 sekt\u00f6rleri birbirinin kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131na \u00e7\u0131karmak hi\u00e7bir zaman fazla anlam ta\u015f\u0131maz. Bu insanlar\u0131n g\u00fcndelik hayat\u0131nda yans\u0131mas\u0131n\u0131 bulur. \u0130nsanlar kay\u0131tl\u0131 ve kay\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131 is\u00adtihdam\u0131n yan yana ya\u015fay\u0131p sevdi\u011fi, ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131klar\u0131na yan\u0131p ba\u015far\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 kutlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 aile ve mahallelerde ya\u015farlar. Bu, \u015eekil 1’deki ba\u011flant\u0131lar\u0131n temelini olu\u015fturur. Zeilig ve Cerut, “i\u015f ve i\u015fsizlik aras\u0131nda a\u015f\u0131lmaz bir set yoktur” ve “e\u011fer istihdam d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda kay\u0131td\u0131\u015f\u0131 d\u00fcnya ve kay\u0131tl\u0131 istihdam aras\u0131nda net bir ayr\u0131m yoksa, hep\u00adsini i\u00e7ine alan protesto potansiyeli mevcuttur” der.53<\/sup><\/p>\n
Bu kapsay\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k ger\u00e7eklemi\u015f bir\u00e7ok protestoda a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Ama ba\u015fka bir \u015fey de do\u011fru. Topluluk gruplar\u0131, yasal olmayan dernekler, bask\u0131 gruplar\u0131 ve vb. kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda \u00f6rg\u00fctl\u00fc eme\u011fin azalan, hatta fuzuli rol\u00fcyle ilgili iddialara kar\u015f\u0131n, \u00f6rg\u00fct\u00adl\u00fc emek daha geni\u015f protestolarda stratejik rol oynamaya devam etmi\u015ftir. 2011’de Kuzey Afrika ve Ortado\u011fu’yu saran isyanlar, gelecekteki patlamalar\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131\u00adkabilece\u011fi gelenekleri arkada b\u0131rakan, baz\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131lardan klasik bir ilerleme ve geri \u00e7e\u00adkilme modelini s\u00fcrd\u00fcren g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcrdeki hik\u00e2yelerin olu\u015fmas\u0131na katk\u0131da bulunmu\u015ftur. Tablo 4,2004’\u00fcn ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131nda bir kabarman\u0131n apa\u00e7\u0131k g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc M\u0131s\u0131r’daki i\u015f\u00e7i protestolar\u0131n\u0131n genel \u00f6rne\u011fini g\u00f6steriyor.<\/p>\n
Burada hareket i\u00e7indeki ini\u015f \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015flar da g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyor. Pop\u00fcler a\u00e7\u0131klamalarda o\u00adda\u011f\u0131n sokaklar olmas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k, genelde birle\u015fmenin oda\u011f\u0131 \u00f6rg\u00fctl\u00fc emektir; ey\u00adlemin y\u00f6n\u00fcn\u00fc bulmas\u0131na yard\u0131m eden \u00f6rg\u00fctl\u00fc emektir ve genelde \u00f6rg\u00fctl\u00fc eme\u011fin saflar\u0131 i\u00e7inden her t\u00fcrl\u00fc liderlik ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu nedenle, onun merkezi rol\u00fc teorisyenlerin kafas\u0131ndan \u00e7ok halk\u0131n kendisini i\u00e7inde buldu\u011fu \u00f6zg\u00fcl durumlardan do\u011far.55<\/sup><\/p>\n
\u00a0Sonu\u00e7<\/h5>\n
Amac\u0131m\u0131z en b\u00fcy\u00fck detaylar ve tart\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n bir k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131 ana hatlar\u0131yla orta\u00adya koyup k\u00fcresel de\u011fi\u015fimleri daha geni\u015f ba\u011flamlar\u0131na oturtmakt\u0131. \u00d6rne\u011fin, yeni toplumsal hareketler hakk\u0131nda yaz\u0131lanlar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011funun sadece ileri \u00fclkelerin dene\u00adyimine dayanmas\u0131 \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131. E\u011fer irdelemeler uzat\u0131l\u0131rsa, o zaman bu sadece k\u00fcre\u00adsel bir analize d\u00f6n\u00fck jestler temelinde yap\u0131l\u0131r. Bu nedenle, b\u00fcy\u00fck resmi sunmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015farak, insanlar\u0131 her b\u00f6lge ve \u00fclkedeki olaylar\u0131n bununla nas\u0131l ili\u015fkilendirilece\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeye te\u015fvik etti\u011fimiz i\u00e7in \u00f6z\u00fcr dileyecek halimiz yok. Temel mesele s\u0131\u00adn\u0131f\u0131n ortadan kalkmad\u0131\u011f\u0131d\u0131r. D\u00fcnya i\u015f\u00e7ileri, tarihteki herhangi bir zamanda oldu\u011fundan daha kalabal\u0131kt\u0131r ve e\u011fer kriz onlar\u0131 baz\u0131 yerlerde geri p\u00fcsk\u00fcrtm\u00fc\u015fse, s\u0131n\u0131f ve \u00f6rg\u00fctlenme \u00f6nemini s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmektedir.<\/p>\n
\"haynes5\"<\/a><\/p>\n
Ama bu k\u00fcresel e\u011filimlerin her \u015feyi belirledi\u011fini s\u00f6ylemek de\u011fil. Sava\u015f\u0131m\u00adlar \u00f6zg\u00fcl yerel ba\u011flamlarda ortaya \u00e7\u0131karlar. Bu hareketlere kat\u0131lanlar i\u00e7in en g\u00f6\u00adr\u00fcnen unsur k\u00fcreselden \u00e7ok genelde yerel ve ulusald\u0131r. S\u0131kl\u0131kla karmakar\u0131\u015f\u0131k bir sonu\u00e7 elde edilir; ama karman\u00e7ormanl\u0131k her zaman sava\u015f\u0131m s\u00fcrecinin par\u00e7as\u0131 ol\u00admu\u015ftur. S\u0131n\u0131f sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131 asla saf olmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ancak bu baz\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc kadar b\u00fcy\u00fck bir problem de\u011fildir. 20. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015f\u0131nda d\u00fcnyay\u0131, \u00f6zellikle de ayaklanma\u00adn\u0131n sosyalist ve i\u015f\u00e7i hareketi k\u00f6keninden gelenlerle liberaller, entelekt\u00fceller, mil\u00adliyet\u00e7iler ve Katolikleri bir araya getirdi\u011fi 1916 \u0130rlanda olaylar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcne alan Lenin, o zamanki gibi bug\u00fcn de do\u011frulu\u011funu koruyan bir yorum ortaya koymu\u015f\u00adtu:<\/p>\n
Toplumsal devrimin s\u00f6m\u00fcrgelerde k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck uluslar\u0131n isyanlar\u0131 olmadan ve Av\u00adrupa’da t\u00fcm \u00f6nyarg\u0131lar\u0131yla k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck burjuvazinin bir kesiminin devrimci patlama\u00adlar\u0131 olmadan, siyasal bilince sahip olmayan proleter ve yar\u0131-proleter kitlelerin toprak sahipleri, kilise ve monar\u015finin bask\u0131s\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131, ulusal bask\u0131ya, vb. kar\u015f\u0131 ha\u00adreketi olmadan anla\u015f\u0131labilece\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmek – b\u00fct\u00fcn bunlar\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmek toplumsal devrimi kabul etmemektir. “Saf” bir toplumsal devrim umanlar hi\u00e7bir zaman b\u00f6y\u00adle bir devrimi g\u00f6remeyecektir. B\u00f6yle biri devrimin ne oldu\u011funu kavramadan dev\u00adrime s\u00f6zde ba\u011fl\u0131l\u0131k g\u00f6sterir.56<\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n
K\u00f6t\u00fc haber, Lenin’in s\u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fc etti\u011fi toplumsal devrim ihtiyac\u0131n\u0131n h\u00e2l\u00e2 var ol\u00admas\u0131d\u0131r. \u0130yi haberse, k\u00fcresel de\u011fi\u015fimlerin bu de\u011fi\u015fimde \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131 olan daha geni\u015f gruplar\u0131 yaratm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131. Her zamanki gibi krizin – \u015fimdi k\u00fcresel \u00f6l\u00e7ekte – hem bir meydan okuma hem de f\u0131rsat yaratmas\u0131 da cabas\u0131.<\/p>\n
\u00c7eviren: Ali \u00c7ak\u0131ro\u011flu<\/strong><\/em><\/pre>\n
Notlar<\/h4>\n
    \n
  1. BM kent istatistiklerinin ve genelde kasaba ve \u015fehir tan\u0131mlar\u0131ndaki keyfi de\u011fi\u015fikliklerin zay\u0131fl\u0131\u00ad\u011f\u0131 Cohen, 2004’de ortaya konulmu\u015ftur.<\/li>\n
  2. Bu rakam ve tahminlerin s\u0131k s\u0131k g\u00f6zden ge\u00e7irilmesi gerekir. \u0130talik rakamlar Paul Bairoch’un ki\u00adtab\u0131ndan al\u0131nan kaba tahminler (bkz., Bairoch, 1991) ve yazar\u0131n geriye d\u00f6n\u00fck projeksiyonlar\u0131d\u0131r.<\/li>\n
  3. Weber, 1899; Vaughan, 1843.<\/li>\n
  4. UN-HABITAT, 2010.<\/li>\n
  5. Cohen, 2004.<\/li>\n
  6. Reader, 2004.<\/li>\n
  7. Ooi and Phua, 2007, s. 29.<\/li>\n
  8. Montgomery, 2009, \u015fehirlerin i\u00e7inde ve \u015fehirlerle k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lge aras\u0131ndaki sa\u011fl\u0131k modellerindeki de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fi ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 irdeler.<\/li>\n
  9. Bir\u00e7ok f\u0131rsatta ara\u015ft\u0131rmas\u0131 yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olan bu ili\u015fkilerin detaylar\u0131 tart\u0131\u015fma konusudur.<\/li>\n
  10. Burawoy, 2010, p308.<\/li>\n
  11. Chang and Grabel, 2004, p17.<\/li>\n
  12. Davis, 2006.<\/li>\n
  13. Davis’in al\u0131nt\u0131 yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 BM, 2006, s. 23.<\/li>\n
  14. Bu hesaplar i\u00e7in Angus Maddison’un ki\u015fi ba\u015f\u0131na d\u00fc\u015fen GSY\u0130H verilerini kulland\u0131m; Maddi- son, 2003.<\/li>\n
  15. Davis, 2006, s. 19.<\/li>\n
  16. Perry, 2008, s. 25.<\/li>\n
  17. UN-HABITAT, 2009.<\/li>\n
  18. UN-HABITAT, 2008, 2009.<\/li>\n
  19. Bkz., Montgomery, 2009.<\/li>\n
  20. Cohen, 2004.<\/li>\n
  21. Tablo BDT \u00fclkeleri ve Okyanusya’y\u0131 d\u0131\u015fta b\u0131rak\u0131yor.<\/li>\n
  22. ILO, 2008, s. 119-121.<\/li>\n
  23. Drakakis-Smith, 1987, s. 94’ten al\u0131nt\u0131.<\/li>\n
  24. Seabrook, 1990, s. 64-95.<\/li>\n
  25. Davis, 2006.<\/li>\n
  26. Oo and Phua, 2007.<\/li>\n
  27. Davis, 2006, s. 138.<\/li>\n
  28. Mohan and Dasgupta, 2005, s. 217, 218.<\/li>\n
  29. Bu olaylara “do\u011fal” felaketler de dense, insanlar\u0131n nas\u0131l servet ve yoksulluk \u015feklindeki e\u015fitsiz\u00adliklerle fiziksel olarak ayr\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 yans\u0131t\u0131yorlar. Zenginler daha g\u00fcvenli olarak ya\u015farlar; yoksullar savunmas\u0131zd\u0131r – \u00f6yle ki baz\u0131lar\u0131 hayatta kalanlar\u0131 ve \u00f6lenleri ay\u0131rmak i\u00e7in yer sars\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131na “s\u0131n\u0131f sars\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131” denilmesini bile \u00f6nermi\u015ftir.<\/li>\n
  30. Aksoy, 2005.<\/li>\n
  31. UNCTAD, 2009.<\/li>\n
  32. G\u0131da fiyatlar\u0131yla ilgili tart\u0131\u015fma i\u00e7in, bkz., Morelli, 2008. 2010-11 ‘de fiyatlar yine sert bir \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f g\u00f6sterdi. K\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgedekiler e\u011fer girdi fiyatlar\u0131 da artarsa artan g\u0131da fiyatlar\u0131ndan kazan\u00e7l\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kama- yabilir. Daha k\u00f6t\u00fcs\u00fc, k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgelerde daha \u00e7ok insan gene g\u0131da maddeleri sat\u0131n al\u0131yor. K\u00fcresel g\u0131\u00adda arz\u0131n\u0131 ilgilendirdi\u011fi \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde, \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131n\u0131n artmas\u0131 ve daha az\u0131n\u0131n – tah\u0131la dayal\u0131 kaloriler hayvani proteine ya da g\u0131da \u00fcr\u00fcnlerine g\u00f6re acayip pahal\u0131 biyoyak\u0131tlara d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrken – et \u00fcretiminde verim\u00adsizce kullan\u0131lmas\u0131 yeterli olacakt\u0131r. Bir spor otomobilin yak\u0131t tank\u0131n\u0131 biyoyak\u0131tla doldurmak bir in\u00adsan\u0131 bir y\u0131l besleyecek ayn\u0131 miktarda tah\u0131l gerektirir; McMichael, 2009. 2050 y\u0131l\u0131na kadar, k\u00fcresel n\u00fcfus-g\u0131da arz\u0131 dengesi projeksiyonlar\u0131 i\u00e7in, bkz., Dorin, Paillard and Treyer, 2011.<\/li>\n
  33. McMichael, 2009, s. 238-239’dan al\u0131nt\u0131.<\/li>\n
  34. Ellis, 2006; Rigg, 2005.<\/li>\n
  35. Beall and Fox, 2007, s. 9.<\/li>\n
  36. Drakakis-Smith, 1987, s. 49’dan al\u0131nt\u0131.<\/li>\n
  37. El-Mahdi and Marfleet, 2009.<\/li>\n
  38. Zeilig, 2010.<\/li>\n
  39. Times, 25 Haziran 2005.<\/li>\n
  40. Ooi and Phua, 2007, s. 27-28’den al\u0131nt\u0131.<\/li>\n
  41. Holloway, 2002.<\/li>\n
  42. Yoksul \u015fehirlerde bunun \u00f6neminin hissedilmesi i\u00e7in, bkz., Montgomery, 2009.<\/li>\n
  43. Bkz., Perlman, 2009; ayr\u0131ca Beall and Fox, 2007, s. 10.<\/li>\n
  44. Bunu 2003 makalesinde \u00f6ne s\u00fcrse de arg\u00fcman 2006 kitab\u0131nda devam ettirilmez.<\/li>\n
  45. El-Mahdi and Marfleet, 2009, s. 119 i\u00e7inde.<\/li>\n
  46. Mike Davis’in Planet of Slums (Gecekondu Gezegeni), t\u00fcm etkisine kar\u015f\u0131n daha pozitif siya\u00adsal cevaplara ancak geli\u015fig\u00fczel g\u00f6ndermeler yapar. Bkz., Davis, 2006, s. 185.<\/li>\n
  47. Munck, 2010, s. 218.<\/li>\n
  48. Bu kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmay\u0131 yapmaktaki amac\u0131m\u0131z, ger\u00e7ek\u00e7ilik olarak teselli aray\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131z say\u0131lmaz. Yok\u00adsul \u00fclkelerde sendikala\u015fma d\u00fczeyleri genelde \u00f6ne s\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc gibi ge\u00e7mi\u015f deneyimden o kadar uzak de\u011fildir.<\/li>\n
  49. Silver, 2003, s. 171.<\/li>\n
  50. Mason, 2007.<\/li>\n
  51. Brady and Martin, 2007.<\/li>\n
  52. Brady and Martin, 2007.<\/li>\n
  53. Zeilig and Ceruti, 2007, s. 74, 77.<\/li>\n
  54. Bunu Solidarity Center (Dayan\u0131\u015fma Merkezi), 2010’daki verilerden ve Egyptian Land Center for Human Rights (M\u0131s\u0131r \u0130nsan Haklar\u0131 Merkezi) websitesindeki verilerden derledim. Verilerin ek\u00adsik oldu\u011funa ku\u015fku yok. De\u011fi\u015fim ilerler ve M\u0131s\u0131r devlet ar\u015fivleri gerekti\u011fi gibi a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131rsa bu rakam\u00adlar d\u00fczeltilecektir. 2004 y\u0131l\u0131yla ilgili iki nokta y\u0131l\u0131n birinci ve ikinci yar\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 temsil eder.<\/li>\n
  55. Seddon and Zeilig, 2005.<\/li>\n
  56. Lenin, 1965, s. 355-356.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
    Referanslar<\/h4>\n